GIS and Maps, Maps

Projections and
Coordinate Systems
Lesson Outcome
• Map and their characteristics
• Automated cartography versus GIS
• Projections and coordinates systems
Map And Characteristics
Map Characteristic What It Means

Maps generalize geographic features

Maps are models —
by using symbols so that all features
not miniatures
will fit the specified output size.

Map scale has a Small-scale maps cover large areas

huge impact on GIS with little detail, and large-scale maps
analysis cover small areas with lots of detail.

Maps use projections to compensate

Maps are a flat
for the flat versus spherical issue, and
model of a spherical
each projection has its own type and
earth
amount of distortion.
Map Characteristic
Maps have a reference grid,
or coordinate system
Maps have a reference
starting point, or datum.
What It Means
The reference grid helps you
navigate the map and links
the spherical earth to the
map projection.
Datums are based on a
model of the Earth called a
reference ellipsoid and
enable all the various
projections in a GIS work
together to give an accurate
picture of the Earth.
AUTOMATED CARTOGRAPHY VERSUS
GIS
• Why cartography?
• Many recorded aspects of human activity need to be
analysed and integrated in a geographical context in
terms of maps.
• The main task of cartography is:
• To define the aim of a map and to visualise geo-data
on paper or electronically.
• As a result of technological efforts, Geographic
Information Systems (GIS) and Computer Aided
Cartography (CAC) have been subject to huge
advances during the last two decades.
• Geographic Information System (GIS) versus Cartographic
Software (CAC)
• We can roughly sub-divide the software relevant for
cartographiy into two groups:
• 'Geographic Information Systems' (GIS) and
• 'Computer Aided Cartography' software (CAC)
• GIS programs generally provide a huge potential to store,
manage and analyse referenced and interconnected data.
• In contrast to GIS, CAC software is mainly used for high quality
visualisation of given spatial information.
• To achieve this, CAC users work with user-friendly graphic
software with a large number of special functions and tools.
• Computer cartography deals with the diagrammatic
representation of data as well as conversion of topographic
variability and other aspects to 2 dimensional plane with
mathematical modelling.
• But on the other hand, GIS deals with spatial phenomena and
making, sorting , modelling it through comprehensible way to
support any decision.
Map Projections and Coordinate
Systems
Map Projections

•A map projection is a
systematic rendering of
locations from the curved
Earth surface onto a flat
map
•Distortions are
unavoidable
•Some areas will be
compressed others will be
stretched
Map Projections
• Most map projections are based on a developable surface
• Cones (conic)
• Cylinders (cylindrical)
• Planes (azimuthal)
• Some projections are not based on developable surfaces
• Use a direct mathematical projection
• Pseudocylindrical, Mollweide, Goode homolosine are examples
Inevitable Distortions
• A projection is a compromise in juggling the following
distortions
• Distance
• Direction
• Scale
• Area
Developable Surfaces

Bolstad 2002
Common Map Projections
• Two of the more common projections are:
• Lambert conformal conic
• Transverse Mercator
• These two types are common in GIS and applicable for North
America and much of the world
 Cylindrical projections

Transverse
Cylindrical cylindrical

Copyright © 2006 by Maribeth H.

Price
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Bolstad 2002
 Common cylindrical
projections

Mercator Miller Cylindrical

Transverse Mercator

Cylindrical Equal Area Equirectangular

Copyright © 2006 by Maribeth H.
Price
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 Conic projections
Common conic projections:
Lambert Conformal Conic
Transverse Mercator
Standard
parallels

Tangent conic Secant conic

Copyright © 2006 by Maribeth H.

Price
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Bolstad 2002
 Common conic projections

Lambert Conformal Conic

Equidistant Conic

Albers Equal Area

Conic
Copyright © 2006 by Maribeth H.
Polyconic
Price
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Coordinate Systems
A coordinate system is a grid used to identify
locations on a page or screen that are
equivalent to grid locations on the globe

The coordinates are (x, y) pairs that are based

on some universal origin point for reference.

The most commonly used is latitude and

longitude
Latitude and longitude refer to degree, minutes and seconds of
arc from reference lines that run East-West (latitude; equator)
or North-South (longitude; prime meridian)
The reference datum is referred to in the coordinate system,
typically by the year and the geographic region that it was
developed for.

For example, the NAD1983 GCS is a reference datum developed

to use with maps of North America (North American Datum) as
that is where it fits the best, with the reference surface
determined using available data from 1980. NAD1927 is from a
reference datum developed in 1866.
Specialized Coordinate
Systems
• There are many specialized tweaks for the NAD1983 GCS, where more
precise measurements have been used to develop a better
representation
• e.g., NAD 1983 (2011); NAD 1983 (CORS96)

• DON’T USE THESE UNLESS TOLD TO DO SO

• Doing so can create alignment issues with different data sets
GIS software allows you to transform data using one of several
different formulas/methods
All of which introduce some errors that may or may not influence the
accuracy of your map
Projection types used in making maps
Map projections
Cylindrical Projections
Different lines are tangential, but directions are true
Conic projections- Tangential vs
Secant
In tangential one
line is true where
others are
distorted;
In secant 2 lines
are true
Azimuthal (also called stereographic
or orthographic) Projections
Regardless of what type of map you make (using whatever projection
you choose) the representation of the Earth will be distorted in at
least 1 (or more) aspects

Shape- maps that preserve shape are called conformal maps

Area- equal area maps preserve the actual amount of the

surface area the region takes up on the globe relative to other areas
of interest

Distance- equidistant maps preserve distance for all lines that

pass through a specified point

Direction- azimuthal maps preserve direction for at least one

point on the map, such that all lines that pass through that point show
true direction.

No map can show all 4 things without distortion, and no map is able to
preserve all of the characteristics equally, regardless of the type

In any projection there is no distortion on the line where the globe

touches the cone, plane or cylinder (i.e., there’s always at least one
true set of coordinate lines
 Cylindrical Projection and related distortion on map

The Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) grid coordinate

system was developed using this type of projection. It is
widely used because direction is not distorted and can be
used for navigation. Area and shape are distorted (Look
how big Greenland appears compared to Australia).
Conic (tangential) projection map
Azimuth (polar) projection map
Map parameters
Refers to properties that can be customized for showing particular
features and locations

The most common is the central meridian (X-axis or x = 0) and/or the

reference latitude Y-axis or y=0)
these two lines are the Y and X axis respectively.

They can be adjusted to make the map show whatever reference values
you want to use, but they must be recorded for the next user to know
what you’ve done.
For example- its possible to create a new coordinate system based
off a standard set of lines for the purposes of having only positive values
on the map. Reference Longitude (central
meridian (x=0)

Reference
latitude (y=0)
Raster coordinate systems

Some raster data has a coordinate system predetermined; other do not have
it established. If it has a coordinate system its GEOREFERENCED
that means each pixel has an X,Y coordinate that corresponds to a
location on the earth’s surface

In cases where a coordinate system was developed but cannot be accessed by

the software, you may need to look at the header of the data file (not easy
or common), or look for an associated 6 line text file that describes the
coordinates for georeferencing the raster

In other cases you must provide ground control points to verify the precise
location of places that can be identified on the image.

Affine transformation is a first order translation that usually

involves simple realignment of the X,Y coordinates

Why bother? In some cases, the raster, if it is to be combined with other

data sets (raster or Vector) may need to be aligned georeferenced before it
can be transformed
Common projection systems

• A Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)

• Not actually a projection, but commonly treated as one
• Takes degrees (measured as arc or non planar distances)
and treats them like equirectangular planar distances
• This introduces some error, as lines of longitude converge and
a 1° x 1° will not be either a square (except at the equator)
or even a rectangle due to the convergence at the poles.
Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM)
Based on Secant transverse cylindrical
projection
Divides up Earth’s surface into zones that are
approximately 180 KM across (where the secant
of the cylinder occurs as it intersects the globe’s
surface.
State plane coordinate
system
• Developed for large scale (small area)
mapping of the US
• Developed to minimize distortion within a
state
• Most states are split into at least two (and sometimes
more ) zones, similar to zones within UTM
• They can use different projections
depending on the orientation of the state
being projected and where it is located
within the US
• Lambert conformal conic
• Transverse Mercator
• Oblique Mercator
Datums
 Datums
A system that allows us to place a
coordinate system on the earth’s surface

Initial point
Secondary point
Model of the earth
Known geoidal separation
at the initial point
Datums

Commonly used datums in North America

 North American Datum of 1927 (NAD27)

 NAD83

 World Geodetic System of 1984 (WGS84)

Projecting spatial data sets
Used for going between projections
Source data sources may not be compatible

UTM 36

UTM 34

Lake Victoria is not in central Africa

Projecting spatial data sets
• Used for going between projections

• Data sets are now compatible

both are
now UTM 34

Lake Victoria really is in east Africa