Topic 1.

2: How is hereditary information

passed from one generation
to the next?
• Genes pass on inherited traits from parent
to offspring.
• Punnett squares show the probability of
offspring inheriting specific traits.
• Both alleles are expressed in codominance.
• In incomplete dominance, alleles are
neither dominant nor recessive.
• Some inherited traits are due to alleles on
the sex chromosomes.
 Concept 1: Genes pass on inherited traits
from parent to offspring.

• Genetics: field of biology that studies heredity,

or the passing of traits from parents to offspring
• Trait: an inherited characteristic, such as eye
colour or hair colour
Remember meiosis
• Sexual reproduction creates diversity in a population
• Gametes are created through the process of meiosis
• Meiosis produces 4 haploid daughter cells.
• Reduction division.
• During fertilization an offspring will get half of its genetic information
from the female, the other half from the genetic male.
Inherited traits
• Hitchhikers thumb
• Widows peak
• Ear lobes
• Hand clasp
• Dimples
• Etc.
 First Modern Experiments in Genetics

• Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk,

discovered that genes contain the
code for certain characteristics.
• Genes are passed down from the
parents to the offspring.
• They come in pairs, called alleles, which are either
dominant or recessive.
• The combination of these alleles determines which
characteristic can be displayed.
• Mendel conducted experiments with peas in the 1860’s and
observed that his pea plants had different traits
• tall or short plants, wrinkled or smooth pods, green or
yellow peas, and white or purple flowers.
• He controlled the breeding of the plants through
pollination.
• He discovered that some traits appeared more often than
others. Those traits are dominant.
• Those that appear less frequently are recessive.
• Hybrid offspring result from a combination of a dominant
trait and a recessive trait.
• Typically dominant trait masks or covers the recessive trait.
• Gregor Mendel discovered how traits are inherited by
experimenting with pea plants.
Thank you Mr. Punnet
• Reginald Punnett created a graphic representation of what Mendel
discovered known as the Punnett Square.
• Using this tool, we can predict the potential offspring of a set of
parents.
Punnet squares
• Let’s look at the Punnett Square for the tall/short allele genes (T = tall
gene, t = short gene).
• The possible combinations you could get would be dominant tall (TT),
hybrid tall (Tt), and recessive short (tt).
• So if I have a dominant tall (TT) parent and a hybrid tall (Tt) parent,
here is what their possible offspring would look like:
• Remember T = tall gene, t = short gene.

This Punnett square shows us

that these parents have 50%
chance of producing a dominant
tall offspring, 50% chance of
producing a hybrid tall offspring,
and a 0% chance of producing a
recessive short offspring.
 Mendel’s Experiments

• Mendel used true-breeding

pea plants that produce
offspring with only one form
of a trait.
• Parent plants produced new
plants called offspring in the
first generation (F1).
Figure 1.10: These are the results of
• Plants from the first Mendel’s cross involving true-breeding
generation were allowed to pea plants with purple flowers and
true-breeding pea plants with white
self-fertilize to produce flowers.
offspring in the second
generation (F2).
Figure that one out …
• Using punnets squares show how Mendel’s experiment resulted in a
25% ratio of white flower in F2
 Mendel’s Experiments (cont’d)

• When two different true-breeding pea plants are

crossed, one trait disappears in the F1 offspring, but
reappears in the F2 offspring.
• Based on this observation, Mendel proposed:
• Each plant has two factors for a trait.
• Each parent gives one factor for each trait.
• One factor dominates over the other if present.
• The “factors” Mendel referred to in his
conclusions are what we now call alleles.
 Homologous Chromosomes and Gametes

• Chromosomes may carry different alleles (ex.

dominant vs recessive).
• During gamete formation, pairs of homologous
chromosomes separate.
• Each gamete receives one member of each
pair, so it receives only one allele of each pair.
• During fertilization when the male (paternal) and
female (maternal) gametes meet, homologous
chromosomes and alleles are paired again. I.e.
we get back up to 46 chromosomes.
 The Law of Segregation

• Law of segregation: states that alleles for a

trait separate during meiosis
• Remember; gametes are haploid so they have half
the genetic information – thus alleles are
separated)
• Each gamete carries one allele for each trait.
• During fertilization, each gamete contributes an
allele for each trait.
• i.e. we are back for a full count of chromosomes
and the alleles are paired again
 Dominant and Recessive Alleles

• Alleles that are dominant will always be expressed

if present.
• Alleles that are recessive will be expressed only if
there are two recessive alleles.
• Dominant alleles are represented with a capital
letter.
• Recessive alleles are represented with a lower-case
letter.
 Dominant and Recessive Alleles
(cont’d)
• Purple flower colour = BB or Bb
• White flower colour = bb

Figure 1.11: These are the results of Mendel’s cross involving true-breeding
pea plants with purple flowers and pea plants with white flowers.
 Genotypes and Phenotypes

• Phenotype: the physical description of an

organism’s trait
• Genotype: the specific combination of alleles an
organism has for a trait
• Homozygous: an organism with two of the same
alleles for a particular trait
• Heterozygous: an organism with two different
alleles for a particular trait
 Genotypes and Phenotypes
(cont’d)

• There are three possible genotypes:

1) Homozygous dominant: two dominant alleles
2) Homozygous recessive: two recessive alleles
3) Heterozygous: one dominant allele and one
recessive allele

Figure 1.12: Three different genes on

homologous chromosomes are indicated.
Each example shows one of the three
possible combinations (genotypes) of
dominant and recessive alleles.
Lets try …
• Do pg. 18
 Concept 2: Punnett squares show the
probability of offspring inheriting
specific traits.

• Genetic cross is a deliberate

mating between a genetic male
and a genetic female.
• Monohybrid cross considers
one trait.
• Hybrid is an offspring that has
different traits from its
parents.
Figure 1.13: A monohybrid cross
between a homozygous dominant
individual and a homozygous
recessive individual. Each parent
contributes one type of allele to
the offspring. The symbol “×”
represents the word cross.
 Punnett Squares

• A Punnett square is a tool

used to help determine the
probability of inheriting
traits in a monohybrid cross.
• It shows the genotypes of
the parents and the
offspring.
Figure 1.14: In this cross, the female
horse can contribute either a B allele
or a b allele to offspring. The male
horse can contribute only the b allele.
The genotypes of the offspring are all
possible combinations of alleles that
can occur when the gametes combine
at fertilization.
 Punnett Squares (cont’d)

• Phenotypic ratio shows the

frequency of the phenotypes (trait)
in offspring.
• Example: 3 purple flowers:1
white flower
• Genotypic ratio shows the
frequency of the genotypes
(combinations of alleles) in
offspring.
• Example: 1BB:2Bb:1bb
Lets try …
• Do pg. 19, 20 & 21
Two second recap
• Hereditary information passed from one generation to the next
• Sexual reproduction creates diversity in a population
• Gametes are created through the process of meiosis
• Meiosis produces 4 haploid daughter cells.
• Genes pass on inherited traits from parent to offspring and come in
pairs called alleles
• Law of segregation: alleles for a trait separate during meiosis - gamete
formation - Each gamete carries one allele for each trait.
• Pairs of homologous chromosomes separate, with each gamete receiving one
member of each pair.
• The gamete receives only one allele of each pair, be it dominant or recessive.

• During fertilization homologous chromosomes and alleles are paired

again … we get back up to 46 chromosomes.
• Alleles that are dominant will always be expressed if present (capital letter)
• Alleles that are recessive will be expressed only if there are two recessive
alleles (lower case letter).
•
• Phenotype: the physical description of an organism’s trait
• Genotype: the specific combination of alleles an organism has for a trait
• Homozygous: an organism with two of the same alleles for a particular
trait (dominant or recessive)
• Heterozygous: an organism with two different alleles for a particular trait
• Mendel conducted experiments with peas in the 1860’s and observed
that his pea plants had different traits.

• Punnett squares show the probability of offspring inheriting specific

traits.
• Genetic cross is a deliberate mating between a genetic male and a
genetic female.

• Monohybrid cross considers one trait.

• Hybrid is an offspring that has different traits from its parents.

Now try … Create a punnet square for the
following monohybrid cross
• A black coat (B) is DOMINANT in guinea pigs. A brown coat (b) is
RECESSIVE.
• A HOMOZYGOUS BLACK guinea pig is bred with HETEROZYGOUS
BLACK guinea pig?
• What is the GENOTYPE of each guinea pig

• Make a cross between TWO HETEROZYGOUS BLACK guinea pigs using

a punnett square and determine the genotype and phenotype ratios
of the offsprine
 Concept 3: Both alleles are expressed in
codominance.
• Codominance: the condition in which both alleles
for a trait are equally expressed in a heterozygote;
both alleles are dominant
• An example of codominance would be a person with
type AB blood, which means that both the A allele
and the B allele are equally expressed.
• Codominant alleles are represented by capital letters
with a superscript for each allele;
• Example red hair and white hair: HRHW
 Sickle Cell Anemia—Another Example of
Codominance
• Sickle cell anemia is a genetic disorder where the
red blood cell is C-shaped (sickle shape) and
therefore cannot transport oxygen effectively.
• People who are heterozygotes with the sickle cell
trait are resistant to the life-threatening disease
malaria.
Sickle cell
• The allele for normal hemoglobin is represented as HbA , and the
allele for sickle cell hemoglobin is represented as Hbs.

• Individuals who are homozygous (HbS HbS) have sickle cell anemia.
• Individuals who are heterozygous (HbAHbS) have some normal and
some sickled red blood cells.

• You try … create a Punnett square where both parents are

heterozygous for the sickle cell gene …
Figure 1.18: When a man
and a woman are both
heterozygous for the sickle
cell gene, there is a one in
four chance that they will have
a child with sickle cell anemia.
2 second review …
• Codominance – both alleles are expressed
• Try this one on …

A monster can have a straight horn Hs or a curved horn Hc. Create a

punnet square for the following. The paternal genome was a pure-
breed Hc the maternal Hc Hs
 Concept 4: In incomplete dominance, alleles
are neither dominant nor recessive.
• Incomplete dominance: a
condition in which neither allele
for a gene completely conceals the
presence of the other; it results in
intermediate expression of a trait
• Unlike codominance where both
traits exhibit themselves
Incomplete Dominance will result
in a third phenotype
• Capital letters with superscripts
represent incomplete dominance.
Lets work through one a little more …
• Create an incomplete dominance punnet square for the following.

Two monster meet and fall in love ….

The paternal genome if homozygous dominant (HBHB).
The maternal heterozygous (HBHb).
B stands for black hair
b stands for white hair.

• What percentage of the offspring would be grey?

 Concept 5: Some inherited traits are due to
alleles on the sex chromosomes.

• Sex-linked trait: a trait controlled by genes on sex

chromosomes
• X-linked trait: a trait controlled by genes on the X
chromosome
• Males are affected by recessive X-linked traits more
often because they have only one X chromosome.
X-linked recessive traits
• An X linked recessive trait is found on the X chromosome.
• Applying XN for normal dominant and Xn for abnormal recessive we
can investigate genotypes and phenotypes.
• REMEMBER the X chromosome comes from the female, the Male will
provide the Y
Female Male
XNXN homozygous dominant (normal) XNY normal
XNXn heterozygous dominant (carrier)
XnXn homozygous recessive(abnormal) XnY abnormal
Lets try one
• Create a punnet square for a normal male having a child with a carrier
female.

Female Male
XNXN homozygous dominant (normal) XNY normal
XNXn heterozygous dominant (carrier)
XnXn homozygous recessive(abnormal) XnY abnormal
Lets try one
• Create a punnet square for a normal male having a child with a carrier
female
XN Y
• 1 daughter normal
XN XN XN XN Y
• 1 daughter carrier
• 0 daughter expressing the trait
Xn XNXn XnY
• 1 son normal
• 1 son expressing the trait
• 25% chance of child expressing trait, 50% chance of son expressing trait
 Red-Green Colour Vision Deficiency

• Red-green colour vision deficiency is a recessive X-

linked trait.
• Carrier is a female that has one recessive allele on
one of her X chromosomes.

Figure 1.20: The Punnett

square shows how the sex-
linked trait is inherited.
Pedigree
• A pedigree chart is a diagram
that shows the occurrence and
appearance or phenotypes of a
particular gene from one
generation to the next
• It is commonly used with humans
and domesticated animals such
as show dogs, and race horses.
And now the a little bit more …
• Notes/example on board …
Dihybrid cross

• Dihybrid cross is a cross between two different lines/genes that differ in

two observed traits.
• The "di" in "Dihybrid", indicates that there are two traits involved
• (e.g. R and Y)
• The "hybrid" means that each trait has two different alleles
• (e.g. R and r, or Y and y)
• The "cross" means that there are two individuals (i.e. a mother and
father) combining or "crossing" their genetic information.
Dihybrid cross
• The Dihybrid cross is easy to
visualize using a Punnett square of
dimensions 4 x 4
• Ex - Two characteristics of seed,
color and seed
• Y - yellow and y green
• R - round and r wrinkled
• Crossing RrYy x RrYy you will get
the following
RY; Ry; rY; ry
• Then build the punnett square
Dihybrid cross
• Here we get a 9:3:3:1 phenotypic
ratio of round-yellow : wrinkled-
yellow : round-green : wrinkled-
green pea seeds.
Now you try
• Worked example in board