IN THE NAME OF ALLAH, THE MOST BENEFICENT,

THE MOST MERCIFUL

 INTRODUCTION TO PLAIN
AND REINFORCED CONCRETE-I
Course Objective

The objective of this course is to present in detail the

properties of concrete as a construction material and
design procedures for reinforced concrete structures.
The design of reinforced concrete elements will be
presented and integrated to the basic knowledge in
order to understand the behavior of reinforced
concrete members. The course will emphasize the
use of American Concrete Institute (ACI) Building
code requirements for structural concrete, ACI 318-
08 for analysis and design.
 PLAIN AND REINFORCED CONCRETE-I

Credit Hour ---------------- 3+1=4

No of periods ---------------- 48+48=96
Assessment
No of class tests ---------------- 2
No of quizzes ----------------- 4
No of assignment ---------------- 4
ESE ---------------- 1
Pass %age ----------------- 50
 WEIGHTAGE

 Theory
CLASS TESTS = 35 %
QUIZZES = 10 %
ASSIGNMENTS = 5%
FINAL EXAM = 50 %
 Practical
Lab. Work = 70 %
Viva Voce = 30 %
 PRE-REQUISITES

 Maths –I and II

 ENGG MECHANICS

 SOM - I

 ENGG GEOLOGY

 TOS - I
 WEEKLY DISTRIBUTION OF SCHEDULE

Week Topics to be covered Exam/Asg

1- 3 Introduction, Reinforced concrete Materials,
Design Philosophy and Concepts
4-6 Flexural Analysis and beam Design, ASD. Asg -1&2
Beam design – working stress method cl test -1
7-10 Beam design – working stress method Asg-3

11-12 Shear and diagonal tension in beams Asg-4

A WORD OF CAUTION
Books
 Design of concrete structures by Nelson / Winter
13th edition
 Concrete Structures part I by Prof. Dr. Zahid Ahmad
Siddiqi
 Reinforced concrete design by Chu-Kia Wang and
Charles G. Salmon 7th edition
 Reinforced concrete design, a fundamental
approach by Edward G. Nawy 4th edition
 ACI Code 318-08
 Concrete Technology by A.M.Neville and J.J. Brooks
LEARNING CURVE
 INTRODUCTION

GENERAL
Concrete as defined by ACI 116 R-00 is a
composite material that consists essentially of a
binding medium within which are embedded particles
or fragments of aggregate, usually a combination of
fine aggregate and coarse aggregate; in Portland
cement concrete, the binder is a mixture of Portland
cement and water, with or without admixture.
Concrete is a heterogeneous mixture of cement,
coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, appropriate
quantity of water, air (entrapped or entrained) and
one or more admixtures.
 INTRODUCTION

Concrete in fresh state is plastic or a fluid like

substance that can be moulded to any desired
shape, but with time, it hardens and becomes an
artificial stone like material.
ADVANTAGES OF CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION
 CONTROL OVER CROSS SECTION. Because of
the plastic nature of concrete in fresh state, a
designer has complete control over the shape and
size (length, width and thickness ) and surface
texture of various structural members. Shape
adoptability permits superior architectural designs to
be built and is the main factors for the popularity of
concrete structures.
Space Pavilion London
 INTRODUCTION
 Durability. Reinforced Concrete possesses excellent
resistance to water. With proper mix design the
concrete can be made impermeable. The size of
crack can be reduced by applying appropriate design
parameters. The ability of concrete to withstand
action of water without serious deterioration makes it
an ideal material to control, store and transport
water. The use of concrete in dams, barrages,
canals, water pipes and storage tanks is very
common. Durability of concrete makes it suitable for
use in hostile industrial and natural environments.
Examples are pile foundation, pavements, oil
platform (in sea), waste water treatment plants and
fertilizer factories etc.
HOOVER DAM
OIL PLAT FORM UNDER CONSTRUCTION
 INTRODUCTION

 Availability of Materials and Labour. Concrete

constituent materials are cheap and locally available
at almost every where except cement which has to
be transported to the site.
 Fire Resistance. Concrete possesses excellent fire
resistant property as compared to any other
construction material and structural component
exhibit good fire endurance up to 600o C. Fire
resistance can be increased by increasing concrete
cover / using light wt concrete.
 Better Insulation Properties. Concrete shows fairly
good heat and sound insulation properties.
 Ductility. The property of the material by virtue of
which it can withstand excessive deformations up to
failure is called ductility. Although concrete is a brittle
material, reinforced concrete if properly designed
may exhibit large deformations, ductility and warning
before failure.
 Buckling. Concrete structures usually have larger
thickness of members as compared to their lengths
and hence less chances of buckling.
 Aesthetics. The superior architectural shapes and
surface textures/finishes that can be imparted to
concrete structures make them aesthetically
beautiful and give them pleasing appearance than
any other construction.
 Cost. Concrete construction is economical in most
structures because of cheap ingredients. In addition,
concrete structures have low maintenance cost.
 Concrete structures
Structures built with concrete include arches,
bridges, retaining walls, tunnels, water tanks, dams,
barrages, oil platform in sea, conduits, highways,
hangers, runways pavements, shells, bunkers,
ammunition silos, towers, mosques, temples,
residential, commercial and industrial buildings etc
CODES OF PRACTICE

A code is a set of technical specifications and

standards that controls important details of design and
construction.
The purpose is to produce sound structure so that
public is protected from poor and inadequate design
and construction.
Two types of codes exist, first the structural code
which is originated and controlled by specialists who
are concerned with the proper use of specific material
or involved with safe design of a particular type or
class of structure. Important structural codes are ACI
Code, AISC, AASHTO, AREA and UBC.
 The second type of code is called Building Code
and is established to cover construction in a given
region, often a city. The object is to protect the public
by accounting for the influence of local
environmental conditions on construction. For
example Quetta Municipal Authority may specify
provisions for earthquake and snow loads.
 Structural code are generally incorporated into local
building codes. Pakistan building code published by
Ministry of Housing lays down different specifications
for construction of buildings in Pakistan. In addition
certain bylaws have been formulated by various
metropolitan corporations and Municipal authorities
like CDA, LDA, FDA etc.
ACI CODE

 Contains provisions covering all aspects of

reinforced concrete manufacture, material
specifications, design, and construction.
 Specifications include quality, details on mixing and
placing, design assumptions for analysis of
continuous structures and equations for
proportioning members for design forces.
 Code is based on many years of research and field
experience.
 Code gives the MINIMUM standard required to
produce a safe, strong, durable and serviceable
design of concrete structure.
 ACI Code is updated every six to seven years or
earlier.

 Contains provision for departure from code

specifications / standards if it can be shown by test or
analysis that such changes will produce a safe
design.

 ACI Code has twenty two chapters and five

appendixes.
Service loads

A structure should not fail or deform excessively

under any possible conditions of service loads. Three
broad categories of load are, DEAD LOADS, LIVE
LOADS and ENVIRONMENTAL LOADS.
 DEAD LOAD
Loads that do not change in magnitude and
location during the lifetime of the structure are
called dead loads. Major part of the dead load in
concrete structures is the self weight. For
buildings, self weight, floor finish, ceiling plaster,
roof insulation, water proofing and partition (fixed)
are dead loads. Allowance must be made for
suspended loads e.g. piping and lighting fixtures.
For bridges dead load may include wearing
course, sidewalk, curbing and an allowance for
piping and other suspended loads.
 LIVE LOADS
Loads whose magnitude and location is not
fixed in the structure are called live loads. They
are chiefly occupancy loads in buildings and traffic
loads on bridges. They may be either fully or
partially present or may not be present at all. The
magnitude and location, at any time are uncertain
and even their maximum intensities are not known
with precision. The minimum live load for which a
roof or floor should be designed, are given by
Pakistan Building Code; a portion of which is
shown below.
 Apartment building
Private units --------------------- 40 psf
Public rooms ---------------------- 100 psf
Corridors ---------------------- 100 psf
 Office building
Office --------------------- 50 psf
Lobbies/corridors --------------- 100 psf
Car garages --------------- 50 psf
 Schools
Classrooms --------------------- 40 psf
Corridors --------------------- 80 psf
Stadium --------------------- 100 psf
 Hospital
O.T / LAB ----------------- 60 psf
Private room ----------------- 40 psf
Wards ------------------ 40 psf
Corridors ------------------ 100 psf
 Assembly area & theatre
Seats fixed ------------------ 60 psf
Movable seats ------------------ 100 psf
Platform assy ------------------- 100 psf
Stage ------------------ 150 psf
 Storage

Warehouse -------------------- 125 psf

Light -------------------- 125 psf

Heavy -------------------- 250 psf

Store retail -------------------- 100 psf

 Manufacturing

Light -------------------- 125 psf

Heavy -------------------- 250 psf

 Environmental loads

They usually consist of snow load, wind pressure

and suction, earthquake loads, soil pressure and
forces caused by temperature differentials. Like live
loads, environmental loads are uncertain, in
magnitude and distribution.
REINFORCED CONCRETE MATERIALS
Specified Compressive Strength, f’c

 According to ACI Code 5.6.2.4, the specified

compressive strength of concrete is taken as
average strength of two 6”x12” cylinders or three
4”x8” cylinders tested in compression according the
ASTM standard at the specified age. The specified
age is normally 28 days.
 In Great Britain, Germany and other European
countries 6” cubes are used to determine the
compressive strength of concrete. Prism specimens
used in France, Russia and other countries are
usually 70x70x350 mm or 100x100x500 mm in size.
 According to the ACI Code section 1.1 and 5.1.1,
compressive strength of structural concrete shall not
be less than 2500 psi.
 Normal weight concrete can be divided into three
types based on its compressive strength:
► Low strength Concrete. Compressive Strength
less than 3000 psi. Used under floors, plinth
protection and under foundation etc.
► Medium strength Concrete. Compressive
Strength between 3000 _ 6000 psi. Used for
normal construction like slabs, beams,
columns footings and water tanks etc.
► High strength Concrete. Compressive strength
more than 6000 psi. Used for columns of high
rise buildings, pre-stressed concrete bridges
etc.
Stress- Strain Curve of Concrete
The performance of reinforced concrete member
under load depends, on the stress-strain relationship
of concrete and steel and on the type of stress applied
to the member. Stress-strain curves for concrete are
obtained by testing a concrete cylinder to rupture at
the age of 28 days and recording the corresponding
strains at different load increments.
Figure shows the stress-strain curve for concrete of
different strengths. All curves consist of an initial
relatively straight elastic portion, reaching maximum
stress at a strain of 0.002; the rupture occurs at a
strain of 0.003.
 Modulus of elasticity of concrete, Ec ( in psi units ) is
seen to be larger for higher compressive strength of
concrete. For concrete in the strength range to about
6000 psi it can be computed with reasonable
accuracy from empirical equation found in ACI Code
8.5.1.
Ec = 33 Wc1.5 √f’c
where Wc is the weight of the hardened concrete in
pcf and f’c is its strength in psi units.
For normal concrete with Wc =145 pcf, Ec may be
taken as
Ec = 57000 √f’c psi
 Modular Ratio. The modular ratio, n, is the ratio of
modulus of elasticity of steel to the modulus of
elasticity of concrete: n = Es/Ec
Modulus of elasticity of steel is considered constant
and is equal to 29x106 psi and Ec = 33Wc1.5√f’c
for normal density concrete,
n = 29x106/(57000√f’c)
n is a whole number always rounded down.
 Modulus of rupture. ACI Code 9.5.2.3 uses modulus
of rupture equal to 7.5 √f’c. For concrete of 4000 psi
compressive strength, the modulus of rupture, fr =
474.3 psi.
Reinforcing Steels for Concrete

 The useful strength of ordinary reinforcing bar in

tension as well as compression i.e. the yield strength
is about 15 times the compressive strength of
common structural concrete. Steel is a high cost
material as compared to concrete. The two materials
can best be used in combination if the concrete is
made to resist compressive stresses and the steel,
the tensile stresses. Thus in reinforced concrete
beams, the concrete resists the compressive force,
the longitudinal steel reinforcing bars are located
close to the tension face to resist tension force.
Reinforcement can also be used to resist
compressive forces to reduce cross sectional areas.
 The reinforcing bars, often called
Reinforcing bars – Rebar.
rebar, are in the form of round bars. The bars are
provided with surface deformations to prevent slip
between steel and concrete. See fig. Bar sizes are
designated by numbers, Nos. 3 to 11 being
commonly used and Nos 14 and 18 for use in
column only. Designation by number, instead of
diameter, has been introduced because the surface
deformations make it impossible to easily measure
diameter. The numbers are so arranged that the unit
in the number designation corresponds closely to the
number of ⅛ in of diameter size. For example, No. 8
bar has a nominal diameter of 1”. The table gives the
Nos, diameter, area of cross section, perimeter and
weight of standard rebar.
Types of Deformed reinforcing bars (Rebar)
 Grades and Strengths.
• In reinforced concrete, the long term trend is to use high strength materials, in both
steel and concrete. Grade 40 steel was very common about thirty years ago but is
largely being replaced by grade 60 steel which is economical as well as reduces steel
congestion. Grade 75 steel finds it use in columns only. ACI Code 9.4 permits rebar up
to fy = 80 ksi with certain limitations. The table 2.3 shows the summary of minimum
ASTM strength requirements, their grade and other properties.
► Welding of bars in making splices or for
fabricating reinforcing cages may result in
metallurgical changes that reduce both
strength and ductility and special restrictions
are placed on both; the type of steel and
welding procedures. Remember all steels are
not weldable and weldability depends on
chemical composition, ACI Code 3.5.2.
► To avoid accidental use of low strength or
smaller size bars, all deformed bars are
furnished with rolled in markings. These
identify the producing mill (usually with an
initial), the bar size (Nos. 3 to 18 ), the type of
steel (S for billet, W for low alloy, A for axle and
a rail sign
for rail steel) and an additional marking to identify
higher strength steel. Grade 60 bars have either one
additional longitudinal line or the number 60 ; grade
75 steel bars have either two longitudinal lines or
the number 75. Identification marks are shown in
figure.
 Stress- Strain Curve. Typical stress - strain curves
are shown in figure; the right part gives the initial
portion of the curve magnified 10 times. Low carbon
steel (grade 40), show an elastic portion followed by
a yield plateau, i.e. a horizontal portion of the curve
where strain continues to increase at constant
stress. For such steel, the yield point is that at which
the yield plateau establishes itself. With further
strain, the stress begins to increase again, though at
a slower rate, a process known as “strain
hardening”. The curve flattens out when the tensile
strength is reached; it then turns down until fracture
occurs. High strength carbon steel, e.g., those with
Fig. Stress-Strain curve for rebars of different grades
60 ksi or higher, either have a yield plateau of much
shorter length or enter strain hardening
immediately without any continued yielding at
constant stress. In such cases, ACI Code 3.5.3.2
specifies that yield stress fy, is stress corresponding
to a strain of 0.0035 or 0.35 %. Low alloy, high
strength steel rarely show any yield plateau and
usually enter strain hardening immediately upon
beginning to yield. Modulus of elasticity of all steel
grades may be taken as 29x106 psi, ACI Code 8.5.2.
DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND
CONCEPTS
 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS

Limit states
 Limit states is defined as the stage in the loading
after which the structure can not fulfill its intended
function due to its strength or serviceability
considerations. The term “limit state” is preferred
compared with “failure” because in most cases of
limit states, the actual failure or collapse does not
occur. Limit states are generally divided into two
categories, strength and serviceability limit states.
 Strength or safety limit states means conditions of
loading corresponding to maximum ductile flexural
strength (i.e. plastic strength), ultimate ductile shear
 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS
strength, buckling, fatigue, fracture, formation of
plastic mechanism, progressive collapse etc. Rupture
refers to complete separation of structural members
into two or more pieces causing collapse. Rupture
may be due to flexural, shear, torsional, or other types
of stresses. Progressive collapse means spreading of
failure once one of the member collapses. Plastic
mechanism produces infinitely large deformations in
the structure and fatigue produces reduction in
material strength due to repeated cycles of reversal of
loads.
 Serviceability limit states are those concerned with
occupancy of building, such as excessive deflections,
undesirable vibrations, permanent deformations,
 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS

deterioration of concrete, excessive cracking,

corrosion of steel, and spaling of concrete cover.
More deflections may be visually unacceptable and
may cause disturbance in parts of the structure
resting on the member. Excessive crack width lead to
leakage, corrosion of steel and deterioration of
concrete.
 According to some specifications, serviceability limit
states are the limiting conditions.
 The structure should not cross any strength or
serviceability limit for a perfect design. All applicable
limits should be checked by using the available
procedures.
 DESIGN PHILOSOPHY AND CONCEPTS

Design Methods
 There are three methods of design; Allowable Stress
Design, Strength Design or LRFD and Plastic
Design. Before proceeding further, the basic design
equation and importance of factor of safety (FOS)
will be discussed.
 Basic Design Equation
● In design, the applied forces and the moments
due to external loads are equated to the maximum
resistive forces and moments that can be developed
within the material of the member with a factor of
safety which is always greater than or equal to one.
● Loads can produce external bending moments,
shear forces, torques and axial forces. Similarly
internal stresses are developed within the material to
balance all the above types of forces and moments
but with a maximum resistance value. This concept
can be summarized by the following design
equation:

External forces/ pressure Max internal resistance

due to load X FOS = offered by material of
structure / mat strength
● A simply supported beam of span (L) subjected
to a point load (P) can be analyzed to get the max
bending moment of PL/4. B.M will only be
 produced if the material of the beam is strong
enough to develop the required strength. This
means that the answer of the analysis may be
true for bigger reinforced concrete beam and may
not be true for small wooden battens.
 Factor Of Safety (FOS). It is defined as ratio of the
expected failure load and maximum service load. It
is required to bring the structure from the state of
collapse to usable state and always greater than 1 to
provide reserve strength as margin of safety. This
also covers the following aspects:
● Uncertainty in applied loads/forces
● Limited deflection under service loads
● To cover, in part, poor workmanship
 ● Uncertainties in material strength
● Unexpected behaviour in case theory is not
fully developed
● Stresses developed during construction
● Presence of residual stresses and stress
concentration beyond theoretically expected
● Natural disasters
 Allowable Stress Design. (ASD)
● In this method, a suitable FOS is applied to
reduce the material stresses and service loads
are considered as such without any increase, the
design method is called “Allowable Stress Design”
(ASD) or Working Stress Design. This method is
conservative, giving more safe designs with
greater costs when dead loads are higher in
magnitude compared with other loads. For the
reduced or allowable material strength, the
structure can be assumed to act perfectly within the
elastic range for more severe loading.
● This method is now replaced by strength design
or LRFD for the structure where the
 behaviour near collapse is fully understood.
However, it is still preferred by some engineers for
important structures like atomic reactors pre
stressed concrete bridges, and water tanks.
 Strength Design. If the major part of FOS is applied
on the service loads to get increased loads called
ultimate or factored loads, and the material strengths
are divided by the minor remaining part of FOS, the
design method is called Strength Design or Load
and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) or Ultimate
Design or Limit State Design. The factor of safety by
which any load is increased for strength design is
called overload factor or simply load factor.
Reduction factor by which the material strength is
slightly adjusted is called capacity reduction factor,ϕ.
 Analysis of structure for loads is performed
assuming it to be within elastic range. Inelastic
behaviour, ultimate failure mode and redistribution of
loads after elastic range are considered in this
method. It is more realistic design as compared to
old allowable stress design.
 Plastic Design. The third method of design is called
plastic design, which is somewhat similar to the
strength design but here the analysis for loads is
also performed considering the collapse mechanism
of the structure. Full reserve strength due to
indeterminacy of the structure is utilized. Inelastic
material behaviour is considered in analysis and
design. Deflection and other serviceability conditions
become more important along with strength
requirements.
 Requirements of strength design

● The basic requirement for strength design may

be expressed as follows:

Design Strength ≥ Required Strength

Φ(Nominal Strength) ≥ U
● In strength design procedure, the margin of
safety is provided by multiplying the service load
by a load factor and nominal strength by strength
reduction factor.
● ACI Code 9.1, 9.2 and 9.3.
 Important strength reduction factors ϕ, as given in
ACI Code 9.3.2 are as under;
● Tension controlled section in flexure = 0.90
● Compression controlled section,
Member with spiral reinforcement = 0.75
Member with tied reinforcement = 0.65
● For section in which net tensile strain in extreme
tension steel at nominal strength, ϵt is between the
limits of compression controlled and tension
controlled sections, ϕ shall be linearly increased to
0.90 as ϵt increases from compression controlled
strain limit to 0.005.
● Shear and Torsion = 0.75
● Bearing on concrete = 0.65
● Plain concrete, in flexure, shear, compression
and bearing = 0.60
OBJECTIVE OF STRUCTURAL ENGINEER
 The analysis and design of a structural member may
be regarded as the process of selecting suitable
material and determining the member dimensions
such that the design strength is equal to or greater
than the required strength. The required strength is
determined by multiplying the actual applied loads,
(dead, live and environmental) by load factor. These
loads develop external forces such as bending
moment, shear, torsion, or axial forces depending on
how these forces are applied.
 Members are then proportioned to develop the
internal forces equal to above forces to keep the
structure in equilibrium.
Fig. Construction Failure of a Multi-storey Building
ANY QUESTION ?
Thanks