MATTER

1.1 Introduction to chemistry

a) Give examples of the importance of
chemistry
b) Recognize chemistry as an interdisciplinary
tool
 CHEMISTRY

The word chemistry is derived from the Arabic

word alchemy or al-kimia, where al is Arabic word
for ‘the’.

Chemistry is the study of matter and the changes

it undergoes.
 THE IMPORTANCE OF CHEMISTRY
The applications of chemistry are wide- ranging. Toiletries,
drugs, plastics, glass, fuels, dyes and metals are just a
small sample of the things that chemistry has provided for
us.

There are also some far less obvious applications of

chemistry. Silicon, a chemical element, is used widely
electronics for computers due to its semiconductor
properties. Metals, like aluminum, titanium and steel, are
used in the manufacture of planes, trains, cars, bridges
etc.
Chemistry helps to keep our water clean, ensure our
food is safe to eat, protect the environment, make our
medicines and are instrumental in the development of
new materials.

Chemistry also can be observed in simple daily life. For

example, from experience gained in the kitchen; from
observing that oil and water do not mix and the boiling
water left on the stove will evaporate.
Everyday we observe such changes without thinking
about their chemical nature. The purpose of chemistry
subject is to make you think like a chemist, to look at
macroscopic world (the things we can see, touch and
measure directly) and visualize the particles and events
of the microscopic world.
Macroscopic and microscopic view
 Matter

Separation by Pure
Mixture physical methods
substance

Homogeneous Heterogeneous

Compound Element
Separation by
chemical method
Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

Element is a substance composed by identical atoms

that cannot be separated into simpler substances by
chemical means.

Compound is a substance that composed of two or

more elements which are chemically combined.
Substance is a form of matter that has a definite
(constant) composition and distinct properties.

Mixture is a combination of two or more substances in

which the substances retain their distinct identities.
Homogeneous mixture is a mixture that has no visible
boundaries between the components (also called as
solution).

Heterogeneous mixture is a mixture that has one or

more visible boundaries between the components.
Note: Elements are composed of extremely small particles called atoms
 Particle

Atom Isotope Ion Molecule

Cation Diatomic

Anion Polyatomic
 1.2 Atoms and molecules
a) Describe proton, electron and neutron in term of
the relative mass and relative charge

b) Define proton number, Z, nucleon number, A and

isotopes

c) Write isotopic notation

d) Define relative atomic mass, Ar and relative

molecular mass, Mr based on the C-12 scale
 ATOM
• An atom is the smallest unit of a chemical
element/compound.
• In an atom, there are three subatomic particles:
- Proton (p)
Packed in a small nucleus
- Neutron (n)
- Electron (e) Move rapidly around the
nucleus of an atom
 Particle Mass (g) Charge Charge
Coulomb Unit
Electron (e) 9.10 x 10-28 -1.60 x 10-19 -1
Proton (p) 1.67x 10-24 +1.60 x 10-19 +1
Neutron (n) 1.67x 10-24 0 0
Nucleon number (A) is the total number of
proton and neutron found in the nucleus of the
atom.

Nucleon number = p + n

Nucleon number is also called mass number.

Proton number (Z) is the total number of proton
found in the nucleus of the atom.

Proton number is also called atomic number.

In neutral atoms, the number of proton is equal

to the number of electrons.
An atom can be represented by isotope notation:
Nucleon number of
bromine ion, A = 79 Total charge on
the ion

The number of
neutrons
=A–Z 79Br −
= 79 – 35
= 44
35
Number of
Proton number of atoms that
bromine ion, formed the
Z = 35 ion
 Nucleon number of
bromine molecule, A = Total charge on
79 the molecule

The number of
neutrons
=A–Z 79Br
= 79 – 35
= 44
35 2
Number of
Proton number of atoms that
bromine molecule, formed the
Z = 35 molecule
 ISOTOPE
Isotope are two or more atoms of the same
element that have the same number of protons
in their nucleus but different number of
neutrons.
Figure: Three isotopes of hydrogen
 Example
Give the number of protons, neutrons, electrons and
charge in each of the following species:
Symbol Number of Charge
Proton (p) Neutron (n) Electron (e)
200
80𝐻𝑔

63
29𝐶𝑢

17 2-
8𝑂

59 3+
27𝐶𝑜
Solution
 Exercise
Write the appropriate notation for each of the
following nuclide:
Symbol Number of Notation
Proton Neutron Electron of
nuclide
A 2 2 2
B 1 2 0
C 1 1 1
D 7 7 10
 ION

Cation Anion

A positive charged ion formed when a A negative charged ion formed

neutral atom lose electrons when a neutral atom gain electrons

11 protons 11 protons 17 protons 17 protons

11 electrons 10 electrons 17 electrons 18 electrons
 MOLECULE
A molecule is a cumulative of at least two atoms
joined together by bonds.

Diatomic molecule is a molecule that contains only

two atoms.
Eg: H2, O2, HCl, CO

Polyatomic molecule is a molecule that contains

more than two atoms.
Eg: H2O, NH3, O3
Relative atomic mass, Ar:
A mass of one atom of an element compared to
1/12 mass of one atom of 12C with the mass 12
 Example
Determine the relative atomic mass of an
element Y if the ratio of the atomic mass of Y to
carbon-12 atom is 0.45
Relative molecular mass, Mr:
A mass of one molecule of a compound compared to
1/12 mass of one atom of 12C with the mass 12

The relative molecular mass of a compound is the

summation of the relative atomic masses of all atoms
in a molecular formula.
 Example
Calculate the relative molecular mass of C5H5N given:
Ar C = 12.01
Ar H = 1.01
Ar N = 14.01
Mr = 5(Ar of C) + 5(Ar of H) + Ar of N
= 5(12.01) + 5(1.01) + 14.01
= 60.05 + 5.05 + 14.01
= 79.11
 Exercise
Calculate the relative molecular mass of:
a) B2H6
b) CH4
c) H2SO4
 Solution
Mr B2H6 = (2 x 10.8) + (6 x 1)
= 27.6
Mr CH4 = (1 x 12) + (4 x 1)
= 16
Mr H2SO4 = (2 x 1) + (1 x 32.1) + (4 x 16)
= 98.1
 1.3 Mole concept
a) Define mole in terms of mass of carbon-12 and Avogadro
constant, NA.

b) Interconvert between moles, mass, number of particles,

molar volume of gas at STP and room temperature.

c) Define the terms empirical and molecular formulae.

d) Determine empirical and molecular formulae from mass

composition or combustion data.
A mole is defined as the amount of substance
which contains equal number of particles
(atoms / molecules / ions) as there are atoms in
exactly 12 g of carbon-12.
One mole of carbon-12 atom has a mass of
exactly 12 grams and contains 6.02 x 1023 atoms.

The value 6.02 x 1023 is known as Avogadro’s

constant or Avogadro’s number.

NA = 6.02 x 1023 mol-1

 HOW BIG IS ONE MOLE?
Consider what would happen if 1 mole of 10
cent coins were distributed equally among the
earth's population, which is currently estimated
at 6 x 109. How many coin would each person
get?

Answer: 1 x 1014(MYR 10 trillion)

A mole of aluminium is easy to show. That is just
26 or so grams. How about a mole of salt grains?

Here is a picture of 41 grains of salt.

 How big would a mole be?

If you were to put it in a cube, it would be 44 km

tall (27 miles) – yeah, that’s high.
 Molar mass
The mass of 1 mole of an element or 1 mole of
compound is referred as molar mass.
Unit : g mol-1

Example:
- molar mass of Mg = 24.3 g mol-1
- molar mass of CH4 = (12 + 4) gmol-1
= 16 g mol-1
 Number of
particles Mass in
(molecule/atom grams
/ion)

Number of
moles

Volume of gas
(dm3 or L)
 Example
In 14 g of N2, calculate:
i. Number of moles molecule if molar mass is
28gmol-1
ii. Number of molecules
iii. Number of atoms
 Solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔)
i. 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1 )
14
=
28
= 0.5 𝑚𝑜𝑙
ii. 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙 × 𝑁𝐴
= 0.5 × 6.02 × 1023
= 3.01 × 1023 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
iii.

1 molecule of N2 contain 2 atoms of nitrogen

3.01 x 1023 molecules of N2 contains 2 x 3.01 x 1023
atom nitrogen
Therefore, number of nitrogen atoms is 6.02 x 1023
 Exercise 1
Calculate the number of H atom in 1 mol of NH3

Answer: 1.09 x 1024 atoms

 Exercise 2
Calculate the number of bromide ions in 2 moles
of CaBr2

Answer: 2.41 x 1024 ions

 Exercise 3
Helium, He is a valuable gas used in industry,
low-temperature research, deep-sea diving
tanks and balloons. How many moles are there
in 6.46g of He.

Answer: 1.61 mol

 Exercise 4
Zinc is a silvery metal that is used in making
brass (with copper) and in plating iron to
prevent corrosion. How many grams of Zn are in
0.356 mole of Zn?

Answer: 23.3 g
 RT=24 dm3mol-1
stp=22.4 dm3mol-1

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 (𝑔) 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 (𝑑𝑚3 )

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

MOLE

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑙𝑒
𝑀𝑉 𝑁𝐴

mol dm-3 dm3

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP)
• 273.15 K (0˚C)
• 1 atm
1 mole of gas has a volume of 22.4 dm3 at STP

Room temperature (RT) Derived from ideal gas

equation PV=nRT
• 298.15 K (25˚C)
• 1 atm
1 mole of gas has a volume of 24.0 dm3 at RT
 Exercise 5
A balloon is filled with hydrogen gas at s.t.p. If
the volume of the balloon is 2.24 L, calculate the
amount (mole) of hydrogen gas.

Answer: 0.100 mol

 Exercise 6
A sample of CO2 has a volume of 56 cm3 at s.t.p.
Calculate:
i. The number of moles of gas molecules
ii. The number of molecule
iii. The number of oxygen atoms in the sample

Answer: (i)2.5x10-3mol (ii) 1.5x1021 (iii)3.0x1021

 EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR
FORMULAE
Empirical formula is a chemical formula that
shows the simplest ratio of all elements in a
molecule

Molecular formula is a formula that shows the

actual number of atoms of each element in a
molecule
The relationship between empirical formula and
molecular formula is:

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎 = (𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑎) 𝑛

Where;
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛=
𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

Example:
Empirical formula of glucose: CH2O
Molecular formula of glucose: (CH2O)6 = C6H12O6
 Example
A sample of hydrocarbon contains 85.7% carbon
and 14.3% hydrogen by mass. Its molar mass is
56. Determine the empirical formula and
molecular formula of the compound.
 Solution

Empirical formula = CH2

 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛=
𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
56
𝑛=
14
𝑛=4

Molecular formula = C4H8

 Example
1.00g sample of compound A was burnt in
excess oxygen producing 2.52g of CO2 and
0.443g of H2O. Determine the empirical formula
of the compound.
 Solution
CXHYOZ + O2(excess) → CO2 + H2O
in 1 mole of CO2 contains 1 mole of C atom
mass of C = 2.52g CO2 x 12.0g C = 0.687g
44 g CO2
in 1 mole of H2O contains 2 moles of H atom
mass of H = 0.443g H2O x 2g H = 0.0492 g
18 g H2O
mass of O = 1.00g – 0.687g – 0.0492g = 0.2638 g
Empirical formula : C7H6O2
 Exercise 1
A combustion of 0.202 g of an organic sample that
contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen produce
0.361g carbon dioxide and 0.147 g water. If the
relative molecular mass of the sample is 148,
what is the molecular formula.

Answer : C6H12O4
 Exercise 2
Determine the empirical formula of a
compound contains 2.1 % hydrogen, 65.3 %
oxygen and 32.6 % sulfur.

Answer: H2SO4
 Exercise 3
A 2.241 g sample of nickel reacts with oxygen to
form 2.852 g of the metal oxide. Calculate the
empirical formula of the oxide.

Answer: NiO
 Exercise 4
A hydrate of potassium carbonate has the
formula K2CO3.xH2O. From 10.00 g of the
hydrate, 7.95 g of anhydrous salt was left after
heating. Determine the value of x in the formula

Answer: 2
 1.4 Concentration unit
a) Define and perform calculations for each of
the following concentration measurements:
i. amount concentration (molarity), c
ii. molality, m
iii. mole fraction, X
iv. percentage by mass, %w/w
v. percentage by volume, %v/v
b) Perform calculation for the concentration
Solute is a substance that present in smaller
amount. It can either be in solid or liquid phase.

Solvent is the substance present in larger

amount.

Solution is a homogeneous mixture formed

when an amount of solute dissolved completely
in a solvent.
Units of concentration of a solution:

A. Molarity (c)
B. Molality (m)
C. Mole Fraction (X)
D. Percentage by Mass (% w/w )
E. Percentage by Volume (% V/V )
 A. MOLARITY (M)
The number of moles of solute per cubic
decimetre (dm3) or litre (L) of solution.

Also called molar concentration.

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑀 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑚3 )
The unit is either M or molL-1 or moldm-3 or
molar

Note:
dm3=L
cm3=mL
 Example
Calculate the molarity of a solution of 1.71 g
sucrose (C12H22O11) dissolved in a 0.5 L of water.

Ar H=1, C=12, O=16

 Solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
1.71
=
12 × 12 + 1 × 122 + (16 × 11)
1.71 𝑔
=
342 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
= 0.005 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑀 =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑑𝑚3 )
0.005 𝑚𝑜𝑙
=
0.5 𝐿
= 0.01 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝐿−1
 Exercise 1
How many grams of potassium dichromate,
K2Cr2O7 required to prepare a solution of 250 mL
with 2.16 M?
Ar K=39.1, Cr=52, O=16

Answer: 158.87 g
 Exercise 2
A matriculation student prepared a solution by
dissolving 0.586 g of sodium carbonate, Na2CO3
in 250 mL of water. Calculate its molarity.
Ar Na=23, C=12,O=16

Answer: 0.0221 mol L-1

 Exercise 3
In a titration experiment, a student finds that 23.48 mL of
NaOH solution are needed to neutralize 0.5468 g of
potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP). What is the
concentration (in molarity) of the NaOH solution?

𝐾𝐻𝐶8 𝐻4 𝑂4 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 𝑎𝑞 → 𝐾𝑁𝑎𝐶8 𝐻4 𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

Answer: 0.1141 M
 B. MOLALITY (m)
The number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kg
of solvent.

Also called molal concentration

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒 (𝑚𝑜𝑙)

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦, 𝑚 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 (𝑘𝑔)
The unit is either m or mol kg-1 or molal

Note:
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡 + 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 ≠ 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑔)

𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛, ρ =
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 (𝑐𝑚3 )
 Example
Calculate the molality of sulfuric acid solution
containing 24.4 g of sulfuric acid in 198 g of
water, given that molar mass of H2SO4 is 98.08
gmol-1.
 Solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑓𝑢𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑑 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
24.4 𝑔
=
98.08 𝑔𝑚𝑜𝑙 −1
= 0.2488 𝑚𝑜𝑙

𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑡
0.2488 𝑚𝑜𝑙
=
0.198 𝑘𝑔
= 1.26 𝑚
 Exercise 1
What is the molal concentration of a solution
prepared by dissolving 0.30 mol of CuCl2 in 40.0
mol of water. Given, molar mass of H2O is 18.02
gmol-1

Answer: 0.42 m
 Exercise 2
What is the molality of a solution containing
7.78g of urea (NH2)2CO in 203 g water?

Answer: 0.639 m
 Exercise 3
A solution containing 121.8g of Zn(NO3)2 per
litre has a density of 1.107gmL-1. Calculate its
molal concentration.

Answer: 0.653 m
 Exercise 4
What is the molality of a 5.86M ethanol
(C2H5OH) solution whose density is 0.927 gmL-1?

Answer: 8.91m
 C. MOLE FRACTION (X)
Mole fraction is the ratio of the number of moles of
one component to the total number of moles of all
component present.

𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴, 𝑋𝐴

𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝐴
=
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡

𝑛𝐴
𝑋𝐴 =
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
Mole fraction has no unit

Note:
Mole fraction of a component is always smaller
than 1.
Total mole fraction of all component in a mixture
is equal to 1.
 Example
What is the mole fraction of CuCl2 in a solution
prepared by dissolving 0.30 mol of CuCl2 in
40.0 mol of water? Given that molar mass of
water is 18.02 gmol-1.
 Solution

𝑛𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙2
𝑋𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙2 =
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
0.3
=
0.3 + 40
= 7.4 × 10−3
Alternative method:
𝑛𝐻2𝑂
𝑋𝐻2𝑂 =
𝑛𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙
40
=
0.3 + 40
= 0.9926

𝑋𝐶𝑢𝐶𝑙2 = 1 − 𝑋𝐻2𝑂
= 1 − 0.9926
= 7.4 × 10−3
 Exercise 1
A solution is prepared by mixing 55g of toluene,
C7H8 and 55g of bromobenzene C6H5Br. What is
the mole fraction of each component?
Ar C=12.01, H=1.01, Br=79.9

Answer: XC7H8=0.63, XC6H5Br=0.37

 Exercise 2
What is the mole fraction of CuSO4 prepared by
dissolving 30 g of CuSO4 in 200 g of H2O?
Determine the molarity of the solution if the
density of solution is 1.08 gml-1.

Answer: 0.0166, 0.883 M

 D. PERCENTAGE BY MASS (% w/w)
Percentage by mass is defined as the percentage
of the mass of solute per mass of solution.

The unit is %

𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
% = × 100
𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Example
A sample of 0.892g of potassium chloride, KCl is
dissolved in 54.3g of water. What is the
percentage by mass in the solution?
 Solution
𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
% = × 100
𝑤 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
0.892
= × 100
0.892 + 54.3
= 1.61%
 Exercise 1
Calculate the amount of water (in grams) that
must be added to 5.00 g of urea in the
preparation of a 16.2 percent by mass solution.

Answer: 25.86 g
 Exercise 2
How many grams of NaOH and water are
needed to prepare 250.0 g of 1.00 % NaOH
solution?

Answer: 2.5 g and 247.5 g

 Exercise 3
Hydrochloric acid can be purchased as a solution
of 37 % HCl. What is the mass of this solution
contains 7.50 g of HCl?

Answer: 20.27 g
E. PERCENTAGE BY VOLUME (% v/v)
Percentage by volume is defined as the
percentage of volume of solute in milliliter per
volume of solution in milliliter.

The unit is %

𝑣 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
% = × 100
𝑣 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
 Example
A 200 mL of perfume contains 28 mL of alcohol.
What is the percentage by volume of alcohol in
this solution?
 Solution

𝑣 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑒
% = × 100
𝑣 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
28
= × 100
200
= 14%
 Exercise 1
A 300 mL solution contains 30 mL of alcohol.
What is the concentration of alcohol by volume
in this solution?

Answer: 10 %
 DILUTION
Dilution results in reduced concentration of the
solution, but it does not change the number of
moles of solute in the solution.

The number of moles of solute before dilution is

equal to the number of moles of solute after
dilution, 𝑛1 = 𝑛2

Therefore:
𝑀1 𝑉1 = 𝑀2 𝑉2
 Example
How to prepare 500 mL of a 2.75 M solution of
hydrochloric acid from an 8.9 M solution of the
same acid.
 Solution

𝑀1 𝑉1 = 𝑀2 𝑉2
8.9 𝑉1 = 2.75 0.5
= 0.1545 𝐿
 Exercise 1
How many milliliters of water must be added to
125 mL of 1.20 M KOH to give 0.5 M KOH?

Answer: 175 mL
 Exercise 2
Describe how you would prepare 5.00 X 102 mL
of a 1.75 mL of a 1.75 M H2SO4 solution, starting
with an 8.61 M stock solution of H2SO4.

Answer: 102 mL
 Exercise 3
You have 505 mL of a 0.125 M HCl solution and
you want to dilute it to exactly 0.1 M. How much
water should you add? Assume volumes are
additive.

Answer: 126 mL
 NEUTRALIZATION
Acid-base neutralization reactions are most conveniently
carried out using a technique call titration.

In titration, a solution of accurately known

concentration, called standard solution, is added
gradually to other solution of unknown concentration,
until the chemical reaction between the two solutions is
complete.
The missing information can be calculated using the
formula below:

𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑎
=
𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑏

The formula takes the assumption that exact equal

number of moles of acid and base have been added,
and equivalence point has been reached.
 Example
How many milliliters (mL) of a 0.610 M NaOH
solution are needed to neutralize 20.0 mL of a
0.245 M H2SO4 solution?
 Solution
2𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 (𝑎𝑞) + 2𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

𝑀𝑎 𝑉𝑎 𝑎
=
𝑀𝑏 𝑉𝑏 𝑏
(0.245)(0.02) 1
=
(0.610)𝑉𝑏 2
𝑉𝑏 = 0.0161 𝐿
= 16.1 𝑚𝐿
 Exercise 1
Calculate the concentration (in molarity) of
NaOH solution if 25.0 mL of the solution are
needed to neutralize 17.4 mL of a 0.312 M HCl
solution.

Answer:0.217 M
 Exercise 2
What volume of a 0.50 M HCl solution is needed
to neutralize each of the following:
a) 10.0 mL of a 0.30 M NaOH solution
b) 10.0 mL of a 0.20 M Ba(OH)2 solution

Answer: (a)6.0 mL (b)8.0 mL

 Exercise 3
A 0.188 g sample of a sodium oxalate, Na2C2O4 is
dissolved in water, acidified and titrated against KMnO4
solution. A volume of 17.5 mL of KMnO4 solution is
needed for the titration as shown below:

2𝑀𝑛𝑂4 − + 16𝐻 + + 5𝐶2 𝑂4 2− → 2𝑀𝑛2+ + 10𝐶𝑂2 + 8𝐻2 𝑂

Calculate the number of moles of Na2C2O4 prepared

and the molarity of KMnO4 solution.

Answer: 1.43 x 10-3 moles, 0.032 M

 1.5 Stoichiometry
a) Name cations, anions and salts according to the IUPAC
nomenclature.
b) Determine the oxidation number of an element in a chemical
formula.
c) Write and balance:
i. chemical equation by inspection method
ii. redox equation by ion-electron method
d) Define limiting reactant and percentage yield.
e) Perform stoichiometric calculations using mole concept
including limiting reactant and percentage yield.
 IUPAC
nomenclature
of ions

OXIDATION BALANCE
NUMBER EQUATION

STOICHIO
METRY
 IUPAC NOMENCLATURE
Cations
For the metals of group 1, 2 and 13 :
Name the metals followed by the word ‘ ions ’
e.g : Na+ : sodium ion, Al3+ : aluminium ion

For the metal with more oxidation states:

Roman numerals are used to indicate the oxidation state.
e.g : Cu2+ : copper(II) ion, Fe3+ : iron(III) ion
Anions
Monoatomic ions have names that ended with ‘ide’
e.g : F- : fluoride ion,
O2- : oxide ion

Other polyatomic anions have their own names

e.g : CO32- : carbonate ion,
SO42- : sulphate ion,
Cr2O72- : dichromate ion
Salts
When a metal combines with a nonmetal
element, the metal (cation) is named before
the nonmetal (anion)

e.g: Fe2(SO4)3: Iron(III) sulphate

FeCl3: Iron(III) chloride

CuCl2 : Copper(II) chloride

MnSO4: Manganese (II) sulphate

 Exercise
Name the following ions/compounds :

NH4+ , OH- , CN- , PO43- , ClO3- , NO3- , MnO

MnO2 , Cu (NO3)2 , KIO3 , MnO4- , NH4ClO3
 OXIDATION NUMBER
Redox reaction is a reaction that involves both
reduction and oxidation.
Oxidation Reduction
The substance loses The substance gains
one or more electrons one or more electrons
Increase in oxidation Decrease in oxidation
number number
Act as an reducing Act as an oxidizing
agent (reductant) agent (oxidant)
 Find
oxidation
number

Direct Calculate

Free Monoatomic Polyatomic

Molecule
element ion ion
 2. For monoatomic ion,
1. In a free element , as an atom the oxidation number is
or a molecule the oxidation equal to the charge on
number is zero the ion

3. Fluorine and other halogens

have oxidation number of -1
except when combine with 4. Hydrogen is +1 except
oxygen in metal hydrides (-1)
 6. In neutral molecule, the sum of
5. Oxygen is -2 except in the oxidation number of all atoms
peroxide (-1) and when that made up the molecule is
combine with fluorine (+2) equal to zero
 Oxidation number
must be in whole
number or fraction
but not in decimal
form!

7. For polyatomic ions, the total oxidation

number of all atoms that made up the
polyatomic ion must be equal to the net
charge of the ion
 Exercise
Find oxidation number for the underlined atoms
Na HCl
Br2 Cl2O7
Al3+ HCl
S2- NaH
NaF MgH2
 Exercise
Find oxidation number for the underlined atoms
MgO HNO3
H2O NH4+
H2O2 MnO4-
OF2 Cr2O72-
KMnO4 NO3-
 Exercise
Assign the oxidation number of Mn in the following
chemical compounds:
(i)MnO2 (ii)MnO4-

Assign the oxidation number of Cl in the following

chemical compounds:
(i)KClO3 (ii)Cl2O72-

Assign the oxidation number of following:

(i)Cr in K2Cr2O7 (ii)U in UO22+ (iii)C in C2O42-
 BALANCE EQUATION

CHEMICAL EQUATION

• INSPECTION METHOD

REDOX EQUATION

• ION-ELECTRON METHOD
 Chemical equation
A chemical equation shows a chemical reaction using
symbols for the reactants and products.

The formulae of the reactants are written on the left side

of the equation while the products are on the right side.

The total number of atoms of each element is the same

on both sides in a balanced equation.
 w𝐴 + 𝑥𝐵 → 𝑦𝐶 + 𝑧𝐷
reactant product

The number w, x, y and z, showing the relative

number of molecules reacting, are called the
stoichiometric coefficients.

The methods to balance chemical equation is

called inspection method
 • Write down the unbalanced equation. Write the
1 correct formulae for the reactants and products

• Balance the metallic element, followed by non-

2 metallic atoms, except hydrogen and oxygen

• Balance the hydrogen and oxygen atoms

3

• Check to ensure that the total number of atoms of

4 each element is the same on both sides of equation
 Example
Balance the chemical equation by applying the
inspection method.

𝑁𝐻3 + 𝐶𝑢𝑂 → 𝐶𝑢 + 𝑁2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
 Exercise
Balance the chemical equation below by
applying inspection method:
a) 𝐹𝑒(𝑂𝐻) 2 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝐹𝑒2 (𝑆𝑂4 )3 +𝐻2 𝑂
b) 𝐶6 𝐻6 + 𝑂2 → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
c) 𝐴𝑙 + 𝑂2 → 𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3
d) 𝑁𝑎𝑂𝐻 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑁𝑎2 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂
 Redox equation
When we balance a chemical reaction equation, the
primary concern is to obey the principle of
conservation of mass - the total mass of the reactants
must be equal the total mass of the products.

This is done by conserving and accounting for atoms.

In redox reactions we must obey a second principle as
well, the conservation of charge.

The total number of electrons lost must equal the total

number of electrons gained.

Redox reactions involve the transfer of electrons from

one species to another, so electrical charge must be
considered when balancing redox equations.

The key to balancing complicated redox equations is to

balance electron transfers.
Redox reaction may occur in acidic and basic solution.

The methods to balance redox equation is called ion-

electron method.

The steps on the next slide show how to balance redox

reaction in acidic solution.
 • Divide the equation into reduction and oxidation half equation
1

•Balance each half reaction:

•Balance element other than oxygen and hydrogen
2 •Balance oxygen atom by adding H20 and hydrogen by adding H+
•Balance the charge by adding electron

•Multiply each the half equation to equalized the number of

electron in each half equation
3

•Add the half reactions; cancel same species that appears on

opposite sides but add together the species that appears on the
4 same side

5 •Check the number of atom and charge

 Example
Balance the following reaction in acidic solution:

2+ −
𝐹𝑒 + 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 → 𝐹𝑒 3+ + 𝑀𝑛2+
 Solution
1. Divide the equation into two half equation, one
involving oxidation and the other reduction:
+2 +3
𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐹𝑒 2+ → 𝐹𝑒 3+
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 → 𝑀𝑛2+
+7 +2

Increase in oxidation number marks the ion as

undergoes oxidation while decrease in oxidation
number means reduction
2. Balance each half-reaction:
a) balance the element other than oxygen
and hydrogen

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐹𝑒 2+ → 𝐹𝑒 3+
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 → 𝑀𝑛2+
Other elements
besides oxygen and
hydrogen are
balanced, therefore
no changes made!
b) Balance the oxygen atom by adding H2O

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐹𝑒 2+ → 𝐹𝑒 3+
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 → 𝑀𝑛2+

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐹𝑒 2+ → 𝐹𝑒 3+
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 → 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂
 c) Balance the hydrogen atom by adding H+

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐹𝑒 2+ → 𝐹𝑒 3+
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 → 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐹𝑒 2+ → 𝐹𝑒 3+
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 8𝐻+ → 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂
d) Balance the charge by adding electrons to the side
with greater overall positive charge
+2 +3

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐹𝑒 2+ → 𝐹𝑒 3+
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 8𝐻+ → 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂
+7 +2

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐹𝑒 2+ → 𝐹𝑒 3+ + 𝑒 −
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 8𝐻 + + 5𝑒 − → 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂
3. Multiply each half-reaction by an integer, so that
number of electron lost in one half-reaction equals
the number gained in the other

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: (𝐹𝑒 2+ → 𝐹𝑒 3+ + 𝑒 − ) × 5
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 8𝐻 + + 5𝑒 − → 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 5𝐹𝑒 2+ → 5𝐹𝑒 3+ + 5𝑒 −

−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 8𝐻 + + 5𝑒 − → 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂
4. Add the two half equation by cancelling the same
species that appears on opposite sides but adding
together the species that appears on the same side

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 5𝐹𝑒 2+ → 5𝐹𝑒 3+ + 5𝑒 −

−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 8𝐻 + + 5𝑒 − → 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂
−
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙: 5𝐹𝑒 2+ + 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 8𝐻 +
→ 5𝐹𝑒 3+ + 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂
5. Check the equation to make sure that there are the
same number of atoms of each kind and the same
total charge on both sides

𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙:
5𝐹𝑒 2+ + 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 − + 8𝐻 + → 5𝐹𝑒 3+ + 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂
 Exercise 1
Balance the following in acidic solution:

𝐶2 𝑂4 2− + 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 − + 𝐻+ → 𝐶𝑂2 + 𝑀𝑛2+ + 𝐻2 𝑂

Answer:
2−
5𝐶2 𝑂4 + 2𝑀𝑛𝑂4 − + 16𝐻 + → 10𝐶𝑂2 + 2𝑀𝑛2+ + 8𝐻2 𝑂
 Exercise 2
Balance the following in acidic solution:

𝐹𝑒 2+ + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 2− → 𝐹𝑒 3+ + 𝐶𝑟 3+

Answer:
2−
6𝐹𝑒 2+ + 𝐶𝑟2 𝑂7 + 14𝐻 + → 6𝐹𝑒 3+ + 2𝐶𝑟 3+ + 7𝐻2 𝑂
 Basic solution

•Balance the equation as in acidic solution

1

•Add OH- to both sides of the equation so

that H+ can form H20
2
 Example
Balance the following redox reaction in basic
condition:

𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝐼𝑂3 − + 𝑂𝐻−

→ 𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2− + 𝐼 − + 𝐻2 𝑂
 Solution
1. Divide the equation into two half equation, one
involving oxidation and the other reduction:
+3 +4

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2−

−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 → 𝐼 −
+5 -1

Increase in oxidation number marks the ion as

undergoes oxidation while decrease in oxidation
number means reduction
2. Balance each half-reaction:
a) balance the element other than oxygen
and hydrogen

2−
𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐶𝑟𝑂3
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 → 𝐼 −
Other elements
besides oxygen and
hydrogen are
balanced, therefore
no changes made!
b) Balance the oxygen atom by adding H2O

2−
𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐶𝑟𝑂3
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 → 𝐼 −

2−
𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐶𝑟𝑂3
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 → 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂
c) Balance the hydrogen atom by adding H+

2−
𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐶𝑟𝑂3
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 → 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2− + 3𝐻+

−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 + 6𝐻+ → 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂
d) Balance the charge by adding electrons to the side
with greater overall positive charge
0 +1

2−
𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐶𝑟𝑂3 + 3𝐻+
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 + 6𝐻+ → 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂
+5 -1

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2− + 3𝐻 + + 𝑒 −

−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 + 6𝐻 + + 6𝑒 − → 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂
3. Multiply each half-reaction by an integer, so that
number of electron lost in one half-reaction equals
the number gained in the other

𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: (𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2− + 3𝐻 + + 𝑒 − ) × 6

−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 + 6𝐻 + + 6𝑒 − → 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂

2−
𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 6𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 6𝐶𝑟𝑂3 + 18𝐻 + + 6𝑒 −
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 + 6𝐻 + + 6𝑒 − → 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂
4. Add the two half equation by cancelling the same
species that appears on opposite sides but adding
together the species that appears on the same side

2−
𝑂𝑥𝑖𝑑𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 6𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 → 6𝐶𝑟𝑂3 + 18𝐻 + + 6𝑒 −
−
𝑅𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛: 𝐼𝑂3 + 6𝐻 + + 6𝑒 − → 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂
−
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙: 6𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝐼𝑂3
→ 6𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2− + 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 12𝐻 +
5. Add OH- to both sides of the equation so that it
can be combined with H+ to form H2O.

−
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙: 6𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝐼𝑂3
→ 6𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2− + 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 12𝐻 +

−
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙: 6𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝐼𝑂3 + 12𝑂𝐻 −
→ 6𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2− + 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 12𝐻 + + 12𝑂𝐻 −
12 H2O

−
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙: 6𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝐼𝑂3 + 12𝑂𝐻 −
→ 6𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2− + 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 12𝐻2 𝑂
6. Cancel the same species that appears on
opposite sides but adding together the
species that appears on the same side

−
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙: 6𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝐼𝑂3 + 12𝑂𝐻 −
→ 6𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2− + 𝐼 − + 3𝐻2 𝑂 + 12𝐻2 𝑂
15 H2O

−
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙: 6𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝐼𝑂3 + 12𝑂𝐻 −
2−
→ 6𝐶𝑟𝑂3 + 𝐼 − + 15𝐻2 𝑂
7. Check the equation to make sure that there are the
same number of atoms of each kind and the same
total charge on both sides

−
𝑂𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑙𝑙: 6𝐶𝑟(𝑂𝐻)3 + 𝐼𝑂3 + 12𝑂𝐻 −
→ 6𝐶𝑟𝑂3 2− + 𝐼 − + 15𝐻2 𝑂
 Exercise 1
Balance the following in basic solution:

−
𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 𝐼− → 𝑀𝑛𝑂2 + 𝐼2

Answer:
2𝑀𝑛𝑂4 − + 6𝐼 − + 4𝐻2 𝑂 → 2𝑀𝑛𝑂2 + 3𝐼2 + 8𝑂𝐻 −
 Exercise 2
Balance the following redox equations:
a) In acidic solution

i. 𝐶𝑢 + 𝑁𝑂3 − + 𝐻+ → 𝐶𝑢2+ + 𝑁𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂

− 2−
ii. 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂3 → 𝑀𝑛2+ + 𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2 𝑂 +𝐻 +
2−
iii. 𝑍𝑛 + 𝐻+ + 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑍𝑛2+ + 𝑆𝑂2 + 𝐻2 𝑂
b) In basic solution

i. 𝐶𝑙𝑂− + 𝑆2 𝑂3 2− → 𝐶𝑙 − + 𝑆𝑂4 2−
−
ii. 𝐶𝑙2 → 𝐶𝑙𝑂3 + 𝐶𝑙 −
iii. 𝑁𝑂2 → 𝑁𝑂3 − + 𝑁𝑂
 STOICHIOMETRY
Stoichiometry is the quantitative study of reactants and
products in a chemical reaction.

Whether the units given for reactants (or products) are

moles, grams or liters, we use moles to calculate the
amount of reactant used or product formed in a
reaction.

This approach is called mole method, which means the

stoichiometric coefficients in a chemical equation can
be interpreted as the number of moles of each
substance.
For example:
𝑁2 𝑔 + 3𝐻2 𝑔 → 2𝑁𝐻3 𝑔

The stoichiometry tells us that:

1 mole of N2 reacts with 3 moles of H2 to form 2 moles
of NH3

For convenience, we can write as:

1 mol N2 ≡ 3 mol H2 ≡ 2 mol NH3

Stoichiometry can be used for calculating the species

we are interested in during a reaction
 Example
How many moles of hydrochloric acid, HCl do
we need to react with 0.5 moles of zinc?
 Solution
𝑍𝑛 𝑠 + 2𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑞 → 𝑍𝑛𝐶𝑙2 𝑠 + 𝐻2 (𝑔)

From equation:
1 mol Zn ≡ 2 mol HCl
If we have 0.5 mol Zn:
0.5×2
0.5 mol Zn ≡ mol HCl
1
Therefore, the amount of HCl required is 1 mol
 Exercise 1
How many moles of H2O will be formed when
0.25 moles of C2H5OH burns in oxygen?

Answer: 0.75 mol

 Exercise 2
A 16.50 mL 0.1327 M KMnO4 solution is needed
to oxidize 20.00mL of a FeSO4 solution in an
acidic medium. What is the concentration of the
FeSO4 solution? The net ionic equation is:

5𝐹𝑒 2+ + 𝑀𝑛𝑂4 − + 8𝐻 + → 5𝐹𝑒 3+ + 𝑀𝑛2+ + 4𝐻2 𝑂

Answer:0.5474M
 Exercise 3
How many milliliters of 0.112 M HCl will react
exactly with the sodium carbonate in 21.2 mL of
0.150 M Na2CO3 according to the following
equation?

2𝐻𝐶𝑙 𝑎𝑞 + 𝑁𝑎2 𝐶𝑂3 𝑎𝑞 → 2𝑁𝑎𝐶𝑙(𝑎𝑞) + 𝐶𝑂2 (𝑔) + 𝐻2 𝑂(𝑙)

Answer:56.8mL
 Exercise 4
10.64 g of metal oxide M2O3 are reacted with excess
hydrogen gas and produces 3.78 g of water and metal
M as shown by the equation:

𝑀2 𝑂3 𝑠 + 3𝐻2 𝑔 → 2𝑀 𝑠 + 3𝐻2 𝑂(𝑔)

Calculate the relative molecular mass of M2O3,

relative atomic mass of metal M and the mass of M
produced in the above reaction.

Answer: 152, 52, 7.28 g

 Limiting reactant
A limiting reactant is the reactant that is
completely consumed in a reaction and limits
the amount of products formed.

An excess reactant is the reactant that is not

completely consumed in a reaction and remains
at the end of the reaction.
There are two methods to find limiting reactant.
1. The first method: compare the reactant and
product
2. The second method: compare the reactant
with reactant
For the first method, consider the industrial synthesis
of methanol (CH3OH):

𝐶𝑂 𝑔 + 2𝐻2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻(𝑔)

Suppose we have 4 moles of CO and 6 moles of H2. To

determine which of the reactant is the limiting, we
have to calculate the number of moles CH3OH obtained
based on the initial quantities of CO and H2.

From the preceding definition, we see that the limiting

reactant will yield smaller amount of product.
Solution:

Compare product (CH3OH) with reactant CO:

𝐶𝑂 𝑔 + 2𝐻2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻(𝑔)

From equation;
1 mol CO ≡ 1 mol CH3OH
If we have 4 moles of CO;
4 mol CO ≡ 4 mol CH3OH

The amount of product formed is 4 moles

Compare product (CH3OH) with reactant H2:

𝐶𝑂 𝑔 + 2𝐻2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻(𝑔)

From equation;
2 mol H2 ≡ 1 mol CH3OH
If we have 6 moles of H2;
6 mol H2 ≡ 3 mol CH3OH

The amount of product formed is 3 moles

H2 produce less product compared to CO.

Therefore, H2 is the limiting reactant
For the second method, consider the same reaction:

𝐶𝑂 𝑔 + 2𝐻2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻(𝑔)

Suppose we have 4 moles of CO and 6 moles of H2. To

determine which of the two reactants is the limiting
reactant, we have to compare both reactants together.

Choose a reactant and find the number of mole needed. If

the number or mole available is greater than the number of
mole needed, the reactant is limiting reactant.
Solution:
𝐶𝑂 𝑔 + 2𝐻2 (𝑔) → 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻(𝑔)
From the equation;
1 mol CO ≡ 2 H2
If we have 4 moles of CO;
4×2
4 mol of CO ≡ = 8 mol H2 (nneeded)
1

From question, given that navailable for H2 is 6 moles

navailable<nneeded

Therefore, H2 is the limiting reactant.

Another example for the second method:

𝑆 + 3𝐹2 → 𝑆𝐹6

A chemist has used 4 moles of S reacts with 10 moles of F2.

To determine which of the two reactants is the limiting
reactant, we have to compare both reactants together.

Choose a reactant and find the number of mole needed. If

the number or mole available is greater than the number of
mole needed, the reactant is limiting reactant.
Solution:
𝑆 + 3𝐹2 → 𝑆𝐹6
From the equation;
1 mol S ≡ 3 F2
If we have 4 moles of S;
4×3
4 mol of S ≡ = 12 mol F2 (nneeded)
1

From question, given that navailable for F2 is 10 moles

navailable<nneeded

Therefore, F2 is the limiting reactant.

 Exercise 1
Determine the limiting reactant when reacting
16.8g of Fe with 10.0g of H2O?

3𝐹𝑒 𝑠 + 4𝐻2 𝑂 𝑔 → 𝐹𝑒3 𝑂4 𝑠 + 4𝐻2 (𝑔)

Ar Fe=55.8, H=1.0, O=16.0

Answer:Fe
 Exercise 2
How many moles of CO2 can be collected if
0.020 moles of CaCO3 is added to 100 cm3 of
0.50 mol nitric acid?

𝐶𝑎𝐶𝑂3 + 2𝐻𝑁𝑂3 → 𝐶𝑎(𝑁𝑂3 )2 + 𝐻2 𝑂 + 𝐶𝑂2

Answer: 0.020 moles

 Exercise 3
C is prepared by reacting A and B:
𝐴 + 5𝐵 → 𝐶

In one process, 2 moles of A react with 9 moles of B

i. Which is the limiting reactant?
ii. Calculate the number of mole(s) of C?
iii. How much of the excess reactant (in moles) is left
at the end of the reaction?

Answer: (ii)1.8mol (iii)0.2mol

 Percentage yield

Theoretical yield is the maximum obtainable yield,

predicted by the balanced equation.

The actual yield is the amount of product actually

obtained from a reaction and it is almost always less
than the theoretical yield.
There are many reasons for the difference between
actual and theoretical yield . For instance, many
reactions are reversible, so, not all reactants can be
converted into product.

Even if all reactants converted into product, it may be

difficult to recover all of the product from the reaction
medium.

Some reactions are complex in the sense that the

product formed may react further to form another
compound.
The higher the amount of product formed, the reaction
is said to be more efficient.

Chemists use percentage yield to quote efficiency of a

reaction.

Percentage yield is the ratio of the actual yield to the

theoretical yield multiply by 100%

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑
 Example (method 1)
1.24 g of methyl salicylate, C8H8O3 or oil of
wintergreen, is prepared by heating 1.50 g of
salicylic acid, C7H6O3 with 11.20 g of methanol,
CH3OH

𝐶7 𝐻6 𝑂3 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶8 𝐻8 𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂

Calculate the percent yield of methyl salicylate

 Solution
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 =
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠

1.50
𝑛𝐶7𝐻6𝑂3 = = 1.09 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
138
11.20
𝑛𝐶𝐻3𝑂𝐻 = = 0.35𝑚𝑜𝑙
32
Compare product (C8H8O3) with reactant C7H6O3:

𝐶7 𝐻6 𝑂3 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶8 𝐻8 𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂

From equation;
1 mol C7H6O3 ≡ 1 mol C8H8O3

If we have 1.09 × 10−2 moles of C7H6O3;

1.09 × 10−2 mol C7H6O3 ≡ 1.09 × 10−2 mol C8H8O3
Compare product (C8H8O3) with reactant CH3OH:

𝐶7 𝐻6 𝑂3 + 𝐶𝐻3 𝑂𝐻 → 𝐶8 𝐻8 𝑂3 + 𝐻2 𝑂

From equation;
1 mol CH3OH ≡ 1 mol C8H8O3

If we have 0.35 moles of CH3OH;

0.35 mol CH3OH ≡ 0.35 mol C8H8O3

C8H8O3 produce less product compared to CH3OH.

Therefore, C8H8O3 is the limiting reactant
 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶8 𝐻8 𝑂3 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝐶8 𝐻8 𝑂3 = 1.09 × 10−2 × 152 = 1.6568𝑔

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙
𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑦𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 = × 100
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑜𝑟𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
1.24
= × 100
1.6567
= 74.84%
 Exercise 1
In a certain experiment, 14.6g of SbF3 was allowed to react
with CCl4 in excess. After the reaction was finished, 8.62g of
CCl2F2 was obtained. (Ar Sb = 122, F = 19, C= 12, Cl = 35.5)

3𝐶𝐶𝑙4 + 2𝑆𝑏𝐹3 → 3𝐶𝐶𝑙2 𝐹2 + 2𝑆𝑏𝐶𝑙3

i. What was the theoretical yield of CCl2F2 in grams ?
ii. What was the percentage yield of CCl2F2 ?

Answer: (i)14.8g (ii)58.24%

 Exercise 2
Ethylene (C2H4), an important industrial organic
chemical, can be prepared by heat hexane
(C6H14) at 800˚C:

𝐶6 𝐻14 → 𝐶2 𝐻4 + 𝑜𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑠

If the yield of ethylene production is 42.5

percent, what mass of hexane must be reacted
to produce 481 g of ethylene?
Answer: 3480 g
 Exercise 3
Disulfide dichloride (S2Cl2) is prepared by heating
sulfur in an atmosphere of chlorine:

𝑆8 (𝑙) + 4𝐶𝑙2 (𝑔) → 4𝑆2 𝐶𝑙2 (𝑙)

What is the theoretical yield of S2Cl2 in grams

when 4.06 g of S8 are heated with 6.24 g of Cl2? If
the actual yield of S2Cl2 is 6.55 g, what is the
percentage yield?
Answer: 8.55 g, 76.6 %
 Percentage of composition

𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑖𝑛 𝑎 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
= × 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
 Example
5.00 g of alloy containing Cu and Zn is added to
excess dilute H2SO4. If 1.281 dm3 H2 gas can be
collected at room temperature and pressure,
determine the percentage of Zn in the alloy.

Ar Zn= 65.4; 1 mole of gas occupied 24.0 dm3 at

room temperature and pressure

𝑍𝑛 + 𝐻2 𝑆𝑂4 → 𝑍𝑛𝑆𝑂4 + 𝐻2
 Solution
𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 1.281
𝑛𝐻2 = = = 0.05338𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 24.0

1 mol H2 ≡ 1 mol Zn
0.05338 mol H2 ≡ 0.05338 mol Zn

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑍𝑛 = 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒 × 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 = 0.05338 × 65.4 = 3.49𝑔

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = × 100%
𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑
3.49
= × 100 = 69.81%
5.00
 Exercise 1
What mass of lead could be obtained from
90.00 grams of lead(II) oxide ore which is only
28.55 % pure?

Answer: 25.70 g
 Exercise 2
In an experiment, a sample of impure zinc
weighing 0.198 g is allowed to react with an
excess nitric acid, HNO3 to produce zinc nitrate
solution and hydrogen gas. Assume that only
pure zinc is completely reacted with nitric acid,
calculate the percentage of pure zinc in the
impure sample if 5.46X10-3 g of hydrogen gas is
produced.

Answer: 89.9 %
 Exercise 3
A sample of 1.55 g of iron ore is dissolved in an
acidic solution in which the iron is converted to Fe2+.
The solution formed is then titrated with KMnO4 to
oxidize Fe2+ to Fe3+ while MnO4- ions are reduced to
Mn2+. 92.95cm3 of 0.02 M KMnO4 is required for the
titration to reach the equivalence point.

a) Write the balanced equation for the reaction of

the titration
b) Calculate the percentage of iron in the sample

Answer: (b)33.4 %