Metal Casting

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General Characteristics of Casting
Processes

• One of the oldest method of manufacturing

• Usually, first step in manufacturing
• Versatile process (no limit on shape, size
and intricacy)
• Any shape in one operation
• High degree of reproducibility
• Cost effective for large production
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 Various casting techniques

• Sand casting
– Green sand casting
– Dry sand casting
• Investment casting
– Lost wax casting
– Shell mold casting
• Permanent mold casting
• Centrifugal casting or full casting
• Slush casting
• Continuous casting
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Sand casting

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Outline of a typical sand casting operation

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 Steps in sand casting

1. Pattern making and core making

2. Sand mold or cavity preparation
3. Melting of metal/alloy 
4. Pouring
5. Cooling & Solidification
6. Cleaning & Finishing
7. Inspection
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 1. Pattern Making

• Pattern allowances
• Types of patterns
• Considerations in pattern making

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 Pattern

• Model of casting with some allowances,

constructed in such a way that it can be used
to form impressions (cavity) in sand

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 Is pattern same as the casting?

• The pattern is slightly larger in every

dimension – shrinkage allowance
• Sufficient extra dimensions to get required
surface finish – machining allowance
• Pattern horizontal section is largest at the
parting line - draft

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Difference between pattern and casting (contd.)

• Extensions to support cores – core prints

• Small tapped holes, slots, etc. are not
provided on the pattern to get the required
accuracy
• Patterns are generally made in two or more
than two parts
• The pattern is generally made of different
material than the cast

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 Pattern allowances

• Shrinkage allowance
• Machining allowance
• Draft or Taper allowance
• Distortion allowance
• Rapping or Shake allowance

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SHRINKAGE ALLOWANCE

• Provided to compensate for shrinkage of

material
• Pattern is made slightly bigger
• Amount of allowance depends upon type of
material, its composition, etc.

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MACHINING ALLOWANCE
– Provided to compensate for machining on
casting.
– Pattern is made slightly bigger in size.
– Amount of allowance depends upon size and
shape of casting, type of material,
machining process to be used, degree of
accuracy and surface finish required, etc.

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 DRAFT OR TAPER ALLOWANCE
 Provided to
facilitate easy
withdrawal of
the pattern.

 Typically taper
ranges from 1
(a) Pattern with zero (no) draft (b) Patterndegree
with to 3
draft
degree for
wooden
(Not to scale)
patterns.

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 DISTORTION ALLOWANCE

(a)(a)(a) (b)
(b)(b) (c)
(c)
(c)
equired
Required
quired shape
ofofof
shape
shape Casting
Casting
Casting produced
produced
produced when
whennono
when no Patternwith
Pattern
Pattern withdistortion
with distortion
distortion
casting
casting
casting distortion
distortion
distortion allowance
allowance
allowance isisis provided
provided
provided allowance
allowance
allowance

• Provided on patterns whose castings tend to distort on cooling

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RAPPING OR SHAKE ALLOWANCE

– Provided to permit easy withdrawal of the

pattern.
– It is a negative allowance.

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What should be the material for the
pattern?

• It should be easily shaped, worked, machined

and joined.
• It should be resistant to wear and corrosion.
• It should be resistant to chemical action.
• It should be dimensionally stable and must
remain unaffected by variations in temperature
and humidity.
• It should be easily available and economical.

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 WOOD

• Easily available
• Low weight
• Low cost
• It absorbs moisture and hence dimensions
will change
• Lower life
• Suitable for small quantity production and
very large size castings.

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 METAL

• Used for mass production

• For maintaining closer dimensional
tolerances on casting.
• More life when compared to wooden
patterns
• Few of the material used include CI, Al,
Fe, Brass, etc. Al is widely used.

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 PLASTIC

• Low weight
• Easier formability
• Do not absorb moisture
• Good corrosion resistance

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 Selection of Pattern Material

• Size of casting
• Shape of casting
• Dimensional accuracy
• Quantity of castings required
• Possibility of repeat orders
• Cost and easy availability

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 Pattern Material Characteristics
Characteristic Wood Aluminum Steel Plastic Cast iron
Machinability E G F G G
Wear resistance P G E F E
Strength F G E G G
Weightb E G P G P
Repairability E P G F G
Resistance to:
Corrosionc E E P E P
Swellingc P E E E E
aE, Excellent; G, good; F, fair; P, poor.
bAs a factor in operator fatigue.
cBy water.
 Types of patterns

• One piece patterns (flat-back pattern)

• Split patterns
• Gated pattern
• Match-plate patterns
• Loose piece patterns
• Sweep pattern
• Segmental pattern
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 One piece Pattern

• Simple
shape
castings
are
produced
by this type
of patterns

(a) Solid pattern 24

 Split patterns

L
Used when Part 2
patterns Part 1
cannot be
made as a
single piece

Dowel pin
(a) Solid pattern (b) Split pattern (c
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 Loose piece patterns
•Used when
withdrawal of Loose pieces
pattern from
Part 2
mould is not
Part
possible or
1
castings is having
projections,
undercuts,etc

•After ramming
Dowel pin
first main pattern
is removed and
n (b) Split pattern
then the loose
(c) Loose piece pattern
pieces 26
 Gated pattern

Runner

• USED FOR Gate

PRODUCING
SMALL
SIZED
CAVITIES IN Pattern
ONE MOULD (a) Gated pattern for 8 castings
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 Match-plate patterns
• Split patterns
attached on
either side is
known as
Match plate
pattern.

Match plate
• It increases
production and
Pattern
helpsGate
in
maintaining
uniformity in
the size and
shape ofPattern
the
castings.
8 castings (b) Match plate pattern 28
 Disposable pattern
Polystyrene
Polystyrene
Sand Sand Hot metal
Hot metal
pattern pattern
Sand Sand

(a) Disposable pattern (b) Hot metal replacing

(a) Disposablein
pattern
sand mould (b) Hot metal replacing
disposable pattern
in sand mould disposable pattern

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 MOULDING SANDS
INGREDIENTS
• Silica, Clay, Sand grains, Moisture &
special additives like coal dust, fuel oil.
TYPES OF MOULDING SAND
• Natural foundry sand
• Synthetic (or Artificial) foundry sand

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 COMMON MOULDING SAND
• Green Sand:
 18-30% clay, 4-8% water.
 Collected from natural resources.
 Maintains moisture content for long time.

• Dry sand:
 It is green sand dried and baked.
 Yields porosity absent castings, as there is no moisture.
 Suitable for very large size castings.
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• Loam sand:
 Clay and silica are mixed in equal proportions.
• Parting sand:
 Used to permit easy withdrawal of the pattern from
mould cavity.
• Core sand:
 Sand used for making cores.
 It should be stronger than moulding sand.

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 Contents of Moulding Sand

• Sand – 70-85%
• Clay – 10-20%
• Water – 3-6%
• Organic additives (wood flour, sea coal,
dextrin, etc.)

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Characteristics of Moulding Sand
• Permeability
– ability of sand to allow gases to escape through
• Strength
– compressive strength
• Deformation
– change of length of a standard specimen at failure
• Flowability
– ability of sand to flow around and over the pattern during ramming
• Refractoriness
– ability of sand to remain solid at high temperatures
• Refractoriness
– ability of sand to remain solid at high temperatures
• Chemical resistivity, Collapsibility, Adhesiveness,
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2. Sand mold or cavity preparation

i. Initial setup
ii. Ramming up the drag
iii. Ramming up the cope
iv. Completing the cope
v. Completing the drag
vi. Setting the core
vii. Closing the mould
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Drag Preparation

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Drag Preparation (Inverted drag)

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Cope Preparation

Pin

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Features/components of a sand mould

• Pouring basin or pouring cup

• Sprue
• Runner
• Gate(s)
• Riser(s)
• Cores
• Vents
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Sand Mould Features

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 3. Melting of metal/alloy 

• Types of furnaces
• Gases in metals/alloys

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 4. Pouring

• Gates
• Types of gates
• Gating design
– Pouring time
– Choke area
– Sprue calculations
– Pouring basin
– Gating ratios
• Riser functions and design

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 Gate

• Restriction in the runner at the point where

it meets the cavity
• It controls the rate at which metal flows into
the cavity

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 Types of Gates

• Top/Vertical Gate
– Favourable temperature gradient towards gate
– Less pouring time
– Cause mold erosion
– Cause turbulence in cavity (dross)
– Generally not used for non-ferrous metals

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 Types of Gates(contd.)

• Bottom Gate
– Used for deep moulds
– Unfavourable temperature gradient
– High filling time
– Special sprue design

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 Types of Gates (contd.)

• Parting Gate
– Most widely used
– Characteristics of top and bottom gates

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 Types of Gates (contd.)

• Step/Horizontal Gate
– Used for large and heavy castings

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 Gating Design

• A good gating design ensures metal distribution to

cavity without excessive temperature loss,
turbulence, entrapping gases and slags
• Pouring rate has to be optimum otherwise either
mold surface may be eroded (fast pouring) or
solidification may start before cavity is filled
(slow pouring)
• Bernoulli's equation and Continuity equation are
used in gating design
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 Pouring Time

• Vertical gating
• Bottom Gating

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Pouring time for vertical gating
applying Bernoulli' s equation at 1and 3
p1v12 p3 v32
  gh1    gh3
 2  2

p1  p3  0, v1  0 & h3  0

v3  2 ght
Applying Continuity equation

V
tf 
A3v3
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Pouring time for bottom gating

v3  2 g (ht  h)
Am 2
tf  ( ht  ht  hm )
A3 2 g

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 Choke Area Calculation

• Minimum x-sectional area from pouring

basin to the cavity inlet
• Choke area determines the metal flow rate
into the cavity
From Continuity equation
.
m  Av
W
A
t 2 gH 52
 Sprue Calculations

• Air Aspiration: if pressure anywhere in the

flow stream falls below the atmospheric
pressure then gases originating from mould
will enter into the molten metal stream
producing porous casting. This is known as
air aspiration
• To avoid air aspiration, sprue should be
tapered and sharp corners should be avoided
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Air Aspiration (Sprue Design)

Applying Bernoulli' s equation at 2 and 3

p 2 v22 p3 v32
  gh2    gh3
 2  2
p3  0, h3  0andv2  v3 ( A2  A3 )
p 2   gh
it shows that the pressure at point 2 is below atmospheric
at least P2  0 which gives
A2 ht

A3 hc

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Air Aspiration (contd.)

d'
 1.3
d
r  0.15 d

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 Pouring Basin

• It reduces the momentum of the molten

metal flowing into the mould by settling
first into it.
• It avoids vertix formation and turbulence
• It helps in maintaining constant head

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Gating Design components to prevent impurities

Strainer removes dross

Splash core reduces

erosion

Skim bob prevents

heavier and lighter
impurities from
entering mould
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 Sprue Base Well

• It reduces velocity
• It prevents mould erosion

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 Gating Ratios

• Proportion of the x-sectional area among

sprue:runner:ingate

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 Types of Gating Ratio

• Non-pressurized (1:2:2)
– Choke at the bottom of the sprue
– No pressure flow in runner & gate
– Low velocity & low turbulence
– Used for drossy materials (Al, Mg)
• Pressurized (2:2:1)
– Ingate area is smallest
– Back pressure throughout the gating system
– High velocity, more turbulence, less chances of air
aspiration
– Dross formation (used for Ferrous alloys)
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 Riser Functions

• Allows the air to escape from the mould as

the molten metal is poured
• It creates pressure; metallostatic head to
ensure that the cavity is completely filled
• Ensures that there will not be any surface
shrinkage in the mould
• Workers can see through the riser that
cavity is full

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 Riser Design

• Riser should solidify after casting

A A
( )r  ( )c
V V
• Riser should compensate shrinkage of
casting
Vr  casting shrinkage
% shrinkage
Vr  3 Vc
100 62
Riser Placement

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Chills

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 Feeding Aids

• Exothermic materials/Insulators are added

on top of the riser

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 CAINE’s Method for Riser Design

a
X  c
Y b
( A V )c
X 
( A V )r
Vr
Y 
Vc
X is freezing ratio
a,b and c are constantsfor differrent materials

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 a b c

Steel 0.1 0.03 1.0

Al 0.1 0.06 1.08

CI, Brass 0.04 0.017 1.0

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 Cleaning & Finishing

• Removal of cores
• Cleaning of surfaces (sand & oxide scales)
• Removal of gating and risers
• Removal of fins, end of nails, unwanted
projections etc.
• Heat treatment

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 Casting Defects

• Defects in sand casting: Types, causes and

avoidance
• Inspection methods in casting
• Methods to improve casting design

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 Defects in sand casting

• Blow • Buckle
• Scar • Scab
• Blister • Rat tail
• Gas holes • Penetration
• Pin holes • Swell
• Porosity • Misrun
• Drop • Cold shut
• Inclusion • Hot tear
• Dross • Shrinkage cavity
• Dirt • Shift
• Wash
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 Blow/Scar/Blister

• Possible causes
– Excess moisture in the moulding sand
– Moisture on chills, chaplets, or metal inserts
– Cores not sufficiently baked or not properly
vented
– Permeability of moulding sand or core too low
because of hard ramming or excess binder or
too fine grain size
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 Gas holes

• Possible causes
– Faulty gating
– Faulty pouring

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 Pin holes/Porosity

• Possible causes
– Gas dissolved in the alloy and the alloy not
properly degassed
– Pouring temperature of the alloy too high

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 Drop

• Possible causes
– Moulding sand or core not sufficiently strong
– Faulty moulding

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 Inclusion/Dirt

• Possible causes
– Faulty gating
– Faulty pouring
– Moulding sand or core not sufficiently strong

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 Dross

• Possible causes
– Faulty gating design

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 Wash

• Possible causes
– Faulty gating
– Moulding sand or core not sufficiently strong
– Insufficient good facing material on mould
cavity surfaces

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 Rat tail/Buckle

• Possible causes
– Poor design providing too large a flat surface in
the mould cavity
– Expansion characteristics of the moulding sand
need improvement

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 Penetration

• Possible causes
– Moulding sand has too large a grain size
– Moulding sand not rammed sufficiently hard
– Moulding sand or cores not sufficiently strong
– Pouring temperature of the alloy too high
– Insufficient good facing material on mold
cavity surface

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 Swell/Scab

• Possible causes
– Moulding sand not rammed sufficiently hard
– Mould not supported properly
– Moulding sand or core not sufficiently strong

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 Misrun/Cold shut

• Possible causes
– Faulty design resulting in a section thickness
which is too thin
– Low fluidity of alloys
– Faulty gating
– Pouring temperature too low

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 Hot tear

• Possible causes
– Faulty design of casting
– Insufficient collapsibility of cores
– Insufficient collapsibility of a portion of the
mould

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 Shrinkage cavity

• Possible causes
– Faulty design calling for isolated heavier
sections which are difficult to feed
– Faulty risering
– Faulty gating
– Improper use of chills

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 Shift

• Possible causes
– Core/jackets not properly located
– Faulty flask/core boxes

84
 Inspection Methods for Defects

• Process inspection
• Visual inspection
• Dimensional inspection
• Pressure testing
• Radiography
• Magnetic particle testing
• Penetrant testing methods
• Ultrasonic testing methods
85
 Sand Casting

• Advantages
– Almost any metal cast;
– No limit to size, shape or weight;
– Low tooling cost
• Limitations
– Some finishing required;
– Somewhat coarse finish;
– Wide tolerances

86
Design Considerations in Casting

• Corners, angles, and section thickness

• Flat areas
• Shrinkage
• Machining allowance
• Draft
• Dimensional tolerances
• Parting line
• Residual stresses
87
Casting Design Modifications

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Casting Cross-Sections

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 Flat areas

• Use ribs and serrations to avoid flat areas

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Avoiding Shrinkage Cavities

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Pads/Chills

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Parting line

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Parting line

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95