Welcome To CIAST and Liquid Penetrant Testing

Welcome to CIAST
and
Liquid Penetrant Testing
Course Objectives
• To explain the basic principles of penetrant

inspection methods.
• To carry out penetrant inspection using solvent-
removable, water-washable and post-
emulsifiable/removal processes.
• To write clear and concise inspection instructions
and test reports.
• To meet syllabus requirements for CSWIP/PCN
Level 2.
Introduction
Aim of the course:
Introduce you to Penetrant Testing (PT)
Objective of the course:
To gain sufficient theoretical and practical

knowledge to enable you to carry out PT and pass
the PCN Level 2 exam. This will consist of two
multi-choice papers, a process check, three test
samples and a written instruction.
Introduction
We start at 0900 and finish at 1615 on Monday to

Thursday.
You start at 0830 on Friday.
Lunch is 1200-1300 and you should have meal ticket.
Homework will be from Monday to Wednesday.
Thursday night should be used for self-study etc.
There will be a test of the fire alarm on Wednesday
morning at approximately 0900.
Introduction
The course length lasts four days, in which we will cover:
An introduction to NDT – Penetrant, Ultrasonic, etc.
Theory of penetrant testing.
Practical experience of using both colour contrast and

fluorescent penetrants.
Product technology – Which covers production processes ie

rolling, casting, forging, heat treatment and
welds.
The PCN Level 2 LPI exam will take place on day 5.

Penetrant Testing
Chapter 1
Non-destructive Testing
Definition
Non-destructive testing is the ability to
examine a material without degrading it.
Introduction
NDT, (a.k.a. NDI or NDE ) in addition to a visual,

consists of 5 main methods:
• Liquid Penetrant (PT).

• Magnetic Particle (MT).
• Ultrasonic (UT).
• Radiography - X and Gamma (RT).
• Eddy Current (ET).
Introduction
What can we hope to find?

Liquid Penetrant – surface breaking flaws in almost any non-
porous material.
Magnetic Particle – surface and slightly sub-surface flaws in

ferromagnetic materials.
Ultrasonic – near, far surface and internal flaws in most

materials.
Radiography - surface and internal flaws in most materials.
Eddy Current – near and far surface flaws in conductive

materials.
Introduction
Accuracy of critical sizing of indications varies from method to method.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection
The length of a surface-breaking discontinuity can be determined readily, but the

depth dimensions can only be assessed subjectively by observing the amount of
bleed out. Time and extent indicate width and volume.
Magnetic Particle Inspection
The length of a discontinuity can be determined from the indication, but no

assessment of discontinuity depth can be made.
Eddy Current inspection
The length of a discontinuity can be determined. The depth of a discontinuity or

material thinning can be determined by amplitude measurement, phase
measurement or both, but the techniques for critical sizing are somewhat
subjective.
Introduction
Ultrasonic Testing
The length and position of a discontinuity can be
determined. Depth measurements are more difficult but
crack tip diffraction or time-of-flight techniques can give
good results.
Radiography
The length and plan view position can be determined.
Through-thickness positioning requires additional angulated
exposures to be taken. The through-thickness dimension of
discontinuities cannot readily be determined.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 2
LPI

History of Penetrant Testing
An early form of penetrant testing was used in the pottery

industry to check for hair-line cracks. This consisted of
rubbing carbon black into suspect areas making the cracks
more visible.
As you can see

it worked really
well.
History of Penetrant Testing
Penetrant testing was significantly developed in the
railway industry.
Spent black engine oil was mixed with kerosene and

locomotive parts submerged. The oil was then removed
and white chalk mixed with alchohol was used to develop
the image and reveal defects.
This method was known as OIL AND WHITE.

It was eventually replaced in the
1940’s, with the development of
magnetic particle testing which was
more sensitive for ferrous based
materials.
Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) is often

referred to as:
Dye Penetrant Inspection (DPI)
or
Penetrant Flaw Detection (PFD)
or
Penetrant Testing (PT)
• LPI is a surface inspection method and along

with MPI is a direct method, the result is
visible on the test area.
• LPI is applicable to all non-porous, non-

absorbing materials.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 3
LPI is a time consuming method of inspection, it

involves 6 or 7 basic steps:
• Surface preparation.
• Penetrant application.
• Removal of excess penetrant.
• Drying ( required).
• Application of developer.
• Inspection.
• Post cleaning and protection.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 4
STEP 1. Surface Preparation
Cleaning Methods
Mechanical methods
Chemical methods
Mechanical methods – brushing and blasting
WILL CAUTION!!!
REMOVE
PHYSICAL METHODS
MUST BE USED
• Scale.
WITH CARE
• Slag.
AND
• Corrosion products.
ONLY WHERE THEIR
• Carbon.
USE IS UNAVOIDABLE
Smearing of
the surface
can close
defects!
Chemical Methods:
WILL
REMOVE
• Oils and Greases

• Paints
Chemical Methods
• Hot solvent degreasing.
• Vapour degreasing.
• Cold solvent degreasing.
• Solvent materials with emulsifiers.
• Alkaline cleaning.
• Acid pickling.
• Steam cleaning.
• Paint removal.
Vapour degreasing plant -

trichloroethylene
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 5
STEP 2. Penetrant Application
• Before applying penetrant it is good practice to
perform a careful visual inspection of the test surface.
• Penetrant can be applied by almost any method,

but in some circumstances overall test sensitivity can
be affected by the method of application.
• As an example, a dip and drain method will usually

provide better sensitivity than a simple immersion
method.
• If at any time the penetrant dries out then the whole

process needs to be repeated from Step 1.
Methods of penetrant application
• Spraying.
• Brushing.
• Aerosol spray.
• Electrostatic spray.
• Dip and drain (immersion).
• Flowing or pouring.
• Thixotropic penetrants.
Critical factors:
• Penetration / dwell time.
• Component temperature.
• Surface cleanliness.
• BS EN 571-1 states that penetrant dwell or contact time

shall generally be in the range from 5 to 60 minutes.
• The applicable written instruction must specify the
dwell time to be used.
• Typically a time of 10-15 minutes is adequate for most
purposes.
• Longer times are required at the lower end of the
permitted temperature range or when higher than
normal sensitivity is required.
THE PENETRANT MUST NEVER DRY OUT!

Penetrant Testing
Chapter 6
Principle of Penetrant Testing
Penetrating fluid applied to component and drawn

into defect by capillary action.
Interaction of adhesive and cohesive forces.
Capillary action,
sometimes called
capillarity.
Gravity has a virtually
negligible effect on
capillarity.
P15 of your notes

Interaction of adhesive and cohesive forces.
Negative
meniscus
Capillary pressure increases as the diameter of the

capillary decreases.
A good penetrant must have

high wetting ability and hence
have a low contact angle –
typically below 5 degrees.
Contact angle is strongly

affected by the cleanliness
of the surface.
Contact Angle
LOW HIGH
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 7
Flaw Entrapment Efficiency
Flaw entrapment efficiency describes the ability of a

penetrant to form an indication large enough to be
seen.
Factors influencing this ability:
• Volume of the defect.
• Length of the defect.
• Contaminants.
• Type of penetrant.
• Processing method.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 8
Penetrant Properties
• Wetting ability.
• Specific gravity.
• Flash point.
• Volatility.
• Chemical activity.
• Viscosity.
• Solubility.
• Solvent ability.
• Tolerance to contaminants.
• Health hazard.
• Electrical conductivity.
• Availability and cost.
Surface Tension
• Surface tension is the cohesive force that acts in the

surface layer of a liquid.
• Droplets of a liquid that has high surface tension will
tend to gather themselves into small spheres.
• Water has high surface tension.
• High surface tension is a desirable property for a
penetrant because this is the force that pulls a liquid
into a capillary.
• Unfortunately high surface tension tends to work
against good wetting ability.
Surface Tension
HIGH LOW
Strongly affected by surface contamination
Viscosity
• Viscosity is a measure of internal friction.

• It affects the rate at which a liquid flows.
• Viscosity has a strong effect on the time taken for
capillary action to work.
• A high viscosity penetrant will require a longer
contact time and a longer development time.
• A low viscosity penetrant may drain too quickly from
vertical or overhead surfaces.
Viscosity contd.
• Viscosity is strongly temperature dependent.

• At high surface temperature viscosity is low and the
time required for capillary action to occur is reduced.
• At low surface temperature viscosity is high and the
time taken for capillary action to occur is increased.
• An increase in penetrant viscosity is the main reason
for the lower surface temperature limit of about 10°C.
Volatility
• A volatile liquid will evaporate quickly.
• A good penetrant should have LOW VOLATILITY.
• In practice the oils used to make penetrants are quite
volatile when used close to the upper surface
temperature limit of about 50°C.
• This increase in volatility is the main reason for the
upper limit on surface temperature.
• If penetrant dries out during a penetrant test the test is
invalidated.
Specific Gravity
• The specific gravity of any material is its

density relative to the density of water.
• In tank line applications the major
contaminant is water.
• Therefore the penetrant for such applications
must have a specific gravity of less than 1.0.
• This way any water contamination will sink to
the bottom of the tank.
A liquid cannot act as a penetrant if it does not have:
GOOD WETTING ABILITY

A good penetrant has high capillary pressure - in order
to develop high capillary pressure a penetrant must
have:
HIGH SURFACE TENSION

Good wetting ability and high surface tension are the
two essential properties of a good penetrant.
A Good Penetrant:
• Has good wetting ability.

• Has high surface tension.
• Has viscosity - not too high and not too low.
• Has low volatility.
• Does not cause corrosion or damage to the
test material in any way.
• Provides good contrast.
• Has a specific gravity of less than 1.0.
Corrosive Properties
• Special care is needed when using penetrant materials
on:
• High nickel alloys.
• Stainless steels.
• Titanium alloys.
• Aluminium alloys.
• These groups of materials can be sensitised - made

susceptible to stress corrosion cracking- by small
amounts of halogen or sulphur.
• Some serious component failures have been traced to
penetrant residues.
Corrosive Properties
• National codes and standards such as BS EN 3452-2

stipulate requirements and describe tests for the
corrosive properties of penetrant consumables.
• The halogen and sulphur content of penetrant

materials is strictly controlled.
• The term halogen refers to the group of reactive

gasses which includes chlorine.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 9
STEP 3. Removal of Excess Penetrant
• Penetrating fluid applied to component and

drawn into defect by capillary action.
• Penetrating fluid removed from component
surface (but not from defect).
• Excess penetrant removal is a critical step in

penetrant inspection.
• If insufficient penetrant is removed then excessive

background coloration will reduce test sensitivity.
• If the method of removal is too aggressive then

penetrant may be removed from shallow defects and
test sensitivity will suffer as a result.
The 5 removal methods are:

• Method A Water
• Method B Lipophilic emulsifier and water
• Method C Solvent
• Method D Hydrophilic emulsifier and water
• Method E Water and solvent
• Water.
• Solvent.
• Emulsifier.
These penetrants are formulated for removal by

one or sometimes more than one of the above.
Water Washable
Water Washable Penetrant
Gentle mechanical action
Spray wash Pressure as low as possible

(Below 2 Bar)
Temperature less than 50ºC

When using fluorescent penetrant the removal has to
be monitored under UV-A conditions.
DO NOT OVER-WASH
Water Washable Penetrant

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
• Usable on rough • Susceptible to over

surfaces. washing.
• Suitable for batch testing. • Least sensitive method.
• Cheaper than other • Requirement for a water

methods. source.
Post-Emulsifiable
Hydrophilic
Post emulsification
systems
Lipophilic
Contact time is critical & should be determined by

experimentation – approx. 1 min @ 30% dilution
with water.
Lipophilic Emulsifier
Stages
• Apply penetrant - allow dwell time.

• Immerse component in emulsifier.
• Emulsifier diffuses into the penetrant
making it water washable (timing critical).
• Water wash removes the emulsified excess
penetrant.
• Penetrant in defects is left unaffected.
• LIPOPHILIC means OIL LOVING.

• Lipophilic emulsifiers are applied undiluted.
• Methods of application include:
• Immersion.
• Dip and drain.
• Foam spray.
• Contact time with lipophilic emulsifier is EXTREMELY
CRITICAL.
• Lipophilic emulsifier is less user friendly than
hydrophilic, it is also more expensive.
Hydrophilic Emulsifier
Stages
• Apply penetrant - allow dwell time.
• Water spray bulk of excess penetrant off.
• Immerse component in emulsifier.
• Emulsifier diffuses into the penetrant making it water
washable (timing critical).
• Water wash removes the emulsified excess penetrant.
• Penetrant in defects is left unaffected.
• HYDROPHILIC means WATER LOVING.

• Hydrophilic emulsifiers are powerful detergents and they
are used diluted with water (typical concentration 5 to
33%).
• Methods of application include:
• Immersion.
• Dip and drain.
• Spray scrubber (very dilute solution).
• Contact time with hydrophilic emulsifier is a little less
critical than was the case with lipophilic emulsifier.
Hydrophilic Emulsifier
• Maximum penetrating • Not suited to rough

ability. surfaces.
• Greater control over • More expensive.

penetrant removal.
• More time
consuming.
Solvent Removable
Clean off the excess with a lint free cloth.

Wipe with a solvent moistened rag.
Do not spray the cleaner directly onto

the item under test!
Solvent Removable
• Portability. • Not suited to batch testing.
• No water supply • Requires hand wiping so
needed. time consuming.
• More expensive than water
washable.
• Potentially hazardous
chemicals.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 10
Step 4: Drying
Hot air recirculating oven (max 85ºC).
Forced warm air – blower.
Dry clean compressed air – 1 bar @ 300mm.
Component temperature shall not exceed 50ºC.
P28-29 of your notes

Step 4: Drying
• Drying is an essential step where dry powder or

solvent suspended developer is used in conjunction
with a water washable or post emulsified technique.
• Drying is not required (before developer application)

if water suspended or water soluble developer is to
be used.
• The solvents used in the solvent removable system

tend to evaporate very quickly at normal ambient
temperatures.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 11
Step 5: Developer Application
Developer applied to surface.

Penetrant drawn back out of the defect by
REVERSE CAPILLARY ACTION.
Step 5: Developer Application
Dry powder Aqueous liquid
Component must be dry Dry after application

Applied by Applied by
Dipping Immersion
Blowing Spraying
Dust storm cabinet Brushing
Fluidised bed
Non-Aqueous liquid
Applied by Aerosol
Development
The developer will:
• Draw out a sufficient amount of penetrant from the

discontinuity to form an indication.
• Expand the width of the indication enough to make it
visible.
•
• Increase the brightness of a fluorescent dye above its

bulk brightness.
• Increase the film thickness of the indication to exceed
the dye's thin film threshold in order to make it
detectable.
Development
The basic mechanism of the developer action is based

on:
Capillary Action - Increases the size of an indication far
beyond the actual defect size; increases the thickness
of an indication, thereby increasing it’s colour brilliance.
Light scattering - Aids the conversion of UVA to visible
light when using fluorescent systems; reduces
background glare when using visible systems.
Solvent Action - Solvent combines with penetrant,
reducing penetrant viscosity, thereby inducing a more
rapid, more efficient bleed-out.
Developer Properties
• Absorbent. • Easily wetted.

• Fine texture. • Contrasting colour.
• Able to mask out • Easily removed.
background colour. • Non-toxic and non-
• Evenly and easily irritant.
applicable.
• Light and even coat
• Non-fluorescing.
Development Time
• BS EN 571-1 requires that development time should

be in the range 10 to 30 minutes.
• The required development time must be specified
by the applicable written instruction.
• Typically a time of 15 minutes is used.
• Shorter times than this may be used at high
ambient temperature.
• Longer times are needed at low ambient
temperature or when enhanced sensitivity is
required.
Development Time
• The development time specified should be

strictly adhered to.
• The size of a penetrant indication increases

with increasing development time.
• Acceptance criteria are generally based on

the observed indication size at the end of the
development time.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 12
Step 6: Inspection
Fluorescent
Parts should be inspected initially as soon as the developer is
applied.
The room or area where fluorescent penetrant inspection is to
take place must be darkened to below 20 lux visible light.
Actual inspection should take place under UV-A light conditions.
For penetrant inspection the minimum level of UV-A light at the
test surface must be 1000W/cm2 (10W/m2). Allow the 10 minutes
for the UV lamp to warm up. The UV-A output should not exceed
5000μW/cm2 (50W/m2).
Before inspecting the person viewing should wait in the viewing
area for a minimum of 5 minutes (10 in USA) to allow their eyes to
adapt to the low light levels. Photochromatic spectacles must not
be worn although the sodium lens type may reduce eye-strain.
30 Seconds 1 Minute 15 Minutes
Step 6: Inspection
Indications should be viewed as soon as

practicable after developer application with
final assessment taking place after a
minimum development time has elapsed.
Cracks in flange
junction, further time
may cause the crack
indications to merge
Penetrant Indications
Fluorescent Indication
Insufficient Cleaning
Excessive background/non-
relevant indications
Step 6: Inspection
Colour Contrast
The test surface should be viewed in bright white light
conditions. A minimum of 500 lux is recommended in
accordance with BS EN 571-1.
The use of monochromatic light sources such as
sodium vapour lamps must not be used as an
illuminating source.
This is due to the fact that these types of lamps emit a
monochromatic wavelength, light of a single wavelength and
hence a single colour, which renders indications to be very
poorly distinguished because everything on the test surface
would be shades of the same single colour.
Penetrant Indications
Colour contrast indication

Step 6: Inspection
Recording
BS EN 571 lists the following methods for recording

indications:
•Written description.
•Sketch.
•Adhesive tape.
•Peelable developer.
•Photography.
•Photocopy.
•Video.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 13
Fluorescent Penetrant and the
Electromagnetic Spectrum
Fluorescent penetrant uses the ability of certain materials to
absorb electromagnetic energy of one wavelength and in
response emit light at a different wavelength.
A MERCURY VAPOUR BULB EMITS

UVA, UVB & UVC!
Standard fluorescent penetrant
ABSORBS EMITS
365 nm 550 nm
UV-A YELLOW - GREEN
Type III - DUAL
PENETRANT
ABSORBS EMITS
365 nm 660 nm
UV-A ORANGE-PINK
Viewing fluorescent penetrant
UV-A lamp
• Most black light sources used in fluorescent
inspection use a MERCURY VAPOUR ARC LAMP.
• This type of lamp emits visible light and UVB / UVC
in addition to UVA.
• With a properly fitted WOODS FILTER which must be
in clean, undamaged and correctly fitted. UV-A and a
low level of visible light are emitted.
Electromagnetic Radiation
• Uvb and uvc radiation are extremely hazardous to

health.
• This type of radiation causes skin cancer.
• NEVER USE A DAMAGED BLACK LIGHT SOURCE!

• Avoid looking directly at a black light.
• Avoid unnecessary skin exposure.

• UVA radiation is relatively safe to work with.
• It may cause temporary health problems such as

EYEBALL FLUORESCENCE.
• The human eye contains a jelly which begins to

fluoresce if exposed for long periods to UVA
light.
• This fluorescence causes clouded vision but the

effect is temporary.
With a properly fitted filter a black light

emits:
• Uva radiation in the wavelength range - 320 to 400

nanometres.
• The principal wavelength emitted is - 365

nanometres.
UV-A Source: Mercury vapour arc lamp + filter (Woods)
Precautions:
Do not use if the filter is cracked, damaged or incorrectly fitted
Avoid looking directly at the lamp
Spectacles with photochromatic lenses are not to be worn
Viewing conditions
White light – min. 500 lux
UV-A – min. 1000 μW/sq. cm.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 14
Step 7: Post-cleaning
Post-Cleaning
It is good practice to clean residues from test material.

However, in some cases, such as when a high quality
paint surface is to be applied, it is vital to remove
penetrant and developer residues.
The part can be cleaned with a solvent cleaner/remover.
Protection, even with a light de-watering oil is a wise

precaution.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 15
System Process
The inspection process is usually

designated by:
• Type of penetrant.
• Method of penetrant removal.
• Type of developer.
System Process
PENETRANT
Colour Contrast
Fluorescent REMOVAL
Dual Water Washable
Solvent Removable
Post-Emulsified DEVELOPER
Dry Powder
Water Suspended
Water Soluble
Solvent Suspended
System Process
The 3 main types of penetrant are:
• - Fluorescent.
• - Colour Contrast.
• - Dual (combined colour/fluorescent).
• All other factors being equal, fluorescent penetrants

provide the best sensitivity.
• Each of the above may be water washable, solvent

removable or post-emulsifiable (in order of
increasing sensitivity).
System Process
Colour contrast penetrants – are usually dyed red and are
mainly used to look for defects when there is adequate day or
artificial light or where no power source is available to enable use
of an ultraviolet lamp.
Fluorescent penetrants – use the ability of certain materials

to absorb electromagnetic energy of one wavelength and in
response emit light at a different wavelength. Indications are
viewed under darkened conditions with the operator thus viewing
bright indications against a dark background.
Dual penetrants – are combined colour contrast and

fluorescent penetrants. They fluoresce at the red/orange
wavelengths (650nm) rather than in the green/yellow band.
System Process
Fluorescent v Colour Contrast
Advantages of fluorescent methods:
• Fluorescent methods are by far the most sensitive.
• Fluorescent methods cause less operator fatigue -

they are more suited to batch inspections.
No Developer With Developer
No Developer With Developer
Colour Contrast Fluorescent
System Process
Contrasting Ability
• In order for the penetrant test to work the indications

formed must be visible.
• Certain colour combinations provide better contrast
than others when viewed by the average human eye.
• In good white light conditions red on a white
background provides the best contrast.
• In darkened conditions the human eye is very
sensitive in the yellow-green part of the visible light
spectrum.
System Process
Fluorescent v Colour Contrast
Disadvantages of fluorescent methods:
• Fluorescent methods require special lighting - they are
not suited for use on site.
• It can be difficult to monitor the removal of excess
penetrant - special lighting is needed.
• Fluorescent dyes are much less chemically stable than
are visible dyes.
• Fluorescent ability can be severely reduced by exposure
to UV-A, sunlight, high temperature, acids and alkalis.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 16
Choice of Penetrant System
The factors influencing the choice of which

system to use are:
• Size and type of defect.
• Geometry and intricacy.
• Surface condition.
Size and type of defect
The post-emulsifiable method is recommended for wide shallow
defects (comparing the depth to the width of the opening to the
surface). Fine (tight) defects are best located by fluorescent
methods due to the higher sensitivity of the eye to fluorescent
rather than colour contrast indications.
Geometry and intricacy

Highly intricate components containing a large number of changes
in section and those with threaded areas present problems in
removing excess penetrant.
Post-emulsifiable methods whilst more sensitive than water-

washable would in all likelihood leave behind excessive
background colouration on such samples. This would thus reduce
the detection of defects.
Surface condition
Rough surfaces are difficult to fully clean when tested with post-
emulsifiable methods and components such as sand
castings and those with threaded areas are best tested by a
water-washable method.
Removal of fluorescent penetrant should be monitored under UV-

A conditions.
Other factors to be considered:

• Component material.
• Size and position of the item to be tested.
• Equipment and expertise available.
• Cost.
• Number of components to be tested.
Example 1: Inspection of a large number of threaded components

Batch inspection of components with complex geometry.
Method: Fluorescent water-washable with dry powder developer .
Fluorescent for mass inspections.
Water-washable more suited than solvents to batch inspections.
Post-emulsifiable difficult to remove from threads.
Example 2: Inspection of turbine blades for fatigue cracks.

High sensitivity required for a low number of components.
Method: Fluorescent post-emulsifiable with non-aqueous developer.
Fluorescent more sensitive than colour contrast systems.
Post-emulsifiable more sensitive than water-washable.
Non-aqueous developer most sensitive form of developer.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 17
System Classification
BS EN 571
Penetrant
Type I Fluorescent
Type II Colour contrast
Type III Dual (combined colour contrast and fluorescent)
Removal
Method A Water
Method B Lipophilic emulsifier
Method C Solvent
Method D Hydrophilic remover and water
Method E Water and solvent
Developer
Form a Dry powder
Form b Water-soluble
Form c Water-suspendable
Form d Solvent based (non-aqueous wet)
Form e Water- or solvent-based for special application
AMS2644
Penetrant
Type I Fluorescent
Type II Colour contrast
Type III Dual (combined colour contrast and fluorescent)
Removal
Method A Water-washable
Method B Post-emulsifiable, lipophilic
Method C Solvent-removable
Method D Post-emulsifiable, hydrophilic
Developer
Form a Dry powder
Form b Water-soluble
Form c Water-suspended
Form d Non-aqueous
Form e Special application
Sensitivity
Level 1/2 Ultra low
Level 1 Low
Level 2 Normal
Level 3 High
Level 4 Ultra-high
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 18
BS EN 571
Methods of Penetrant Removal
The method of penetrant removal influences the contents of the

penetrant itself and although a number of different methods of
removal are used, the materials fall into 2 basic types:
•Penetrant chemicals composed of a hydrocarbon and a dye

(red or fluorescent) in solution. These can be either post-
emulsifiable penetrants or solvent-removable.
•Penetrant chemicals composed of a hydrocarbon, a dye (red

or fluorescent) and an emulsifier. These are called water-
washable or self-emulsifying penetrants.
Despite there being only 2 basic types of penetrant,

five methods of penetrant removal are listed in BS
EN 571-1. These are:
Method A Water
Method B Lipophilic emulsifier
Method C Solvent
Method D Hydrophilic remover and water
Method E Water and solvent
Water washable
Water-washable penetrants contain an emulsifier and are therefore
removable by water. There is however a big disadvantage, as water
can cause the penetrant and emulsifier to be washed out of wide
shallow defects. Water-washable penetrants are most commonly
used on rough parts such as castings or forgings as a rough
surface is a series of wide shallow crevices.
By lowering the amount of emulsifier in the liquid, finer and tighter

defects can be found. This is at a price, for as the sensitivity goes
up the washability goes down. So super-sensitive water-removable
penetrants will not wash from anything but smooth surfaces. The
removal of fluorescent penetrants should be carried out under UV-
A light.
Solvent removal
A dry lint-free cloth can be used to remove the bulk the excess penetrant
then a lint-free cloth moistened with solvent cleaner/remover is then used
to wipe off the remaining penetrant from the test area.
If a colour contrast penetrant is being removed then wiping should cease

when the rag is lightly tinged with dye (bloom). The specimen should not
be over-cleaned.
When solvent removers are used to clean off excess fluorescent

penetrant, removal should be conducted under ultraviolet light (UV-A) to
ensure that the background has been reduced to an acceptable level.
Neat, high pressure solvent, must never be sprayed directly at an area of

inspection interest.
Post-emulsifiable
Penetrants, apart from the self-emulsifying ones used in water-washable
inspections, are generally oil-based and not soluble with water. Since water is
the most plentiful and the least expensive type of solvent available the need is
for some chemical that is soluble both in water and in oil that can render them
water washable. The chemical used is referred to as an emulsifier and can be
either oil-based or water-diluted. The former are referred to as lipophilic and the
latter hydrophilic. Both will mix with oil and makes the whole miscible with
water and the normal method of application is immersion followed by draining
and washing with water (brushing being excluded as it makes it difficult to
control the diffusion rate of the emulsifier into the penetrant).
This method has the advantage of enabling wide shallow discontinuities to be

detected because only penetrant oil enters the discontinuity and washing after
emulsifier application should only remove the surplus penetrant from the
surface. This method is used on high stress critical parts. However, emulsifier
contact time is absolutely critical.
Post-Emulsifiable contd.
Most references quote a maximum of three minutes for emulsifier contact time. If
the maximum time is exceeded then the emulsifier will attack the penetrant in
flaws, especially the wide shallow defects. If a number of specimens are tested in
a batch at the same time, then all of them must have exactly the same
emulsification and wash time or results will vary
Lipophilic emulsifiers are used neat and are often viscous resulting in high drag-
out and therefore making it expensive to use. Also when large amounts are being
flushed down a drain pollution control measures may have to be taken. Lipophilic
emulsifiers have therefore generally been superseded by hydrophilic removers.
In addition to the emulsifying action other desirable properties are a colour which
contrasts with that of the penetrant to help us to ensure that all the surface of the
test item has been covered by the emulsifier. The dye of the emulsifier is also
fluorescent so that, when washing under black light, the complete removal of the
emulsifier can be verified and water-soluble so that the dye will not be left on the
surface after the part has been washed.
Hydrophilic remover (water-miscible)

Hydrophilic emulsifiers used in penetrant testing are essentially
surface-active agents (surfactants) or detergents and hydrophilic
means water-loving or water-soluble. Such emulsifiers are supplied as a
concentrate and are mixed with tap water to the desired dilution.
Hydrophilic removers have the ability to break down the surface tension
of penetrant in contact with a test surface and lift or scrub the penetrant
from that surface. In practice the proportion of detergent to water may
be varied to allow greater control of washing. The change in
concentration varies the activity of the emulsifier and the rate at which
it acts. Sensitivity tests with specimens of the type to be inspected
should be made to determine the optimum level. Low concentration
levels near to 5% provide the best sensitivity but can be expected to
leave more background than a 20% concentration on rough surfaces.
Refractometer 30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Hydrophilic remover (water-miscible) contd.
Hydrophilic removers are infinitely water tolerant, a fact which enables parts to
be given a pre-wash with a spray to remove excess penetrant. This extends the
life of the remover and means that there is only a thin film of penetrant left. In
some cases where an exclusive drain tank is used the pre-wash allows the
penetrant to be separated, recovered and perhaps re-used.
The hydrophilic remover is usually applied by immersion, although a spray of

high dilution remover is sometimes preferred(spray-scrubber). Remover time is
usually a maximum of three minutes, although there is much more flexibility
than with a lipophilic emulsifier process. Washing with water takes place after
the remover stage under the same conditions detailed for water washable
systems.
It is ultimately the most sensitive system, although it takes longer. It combines

flexibility with efficiency, but it is sometimes difficult to remove the penetrant
from crevices and the roots of fine threads.
Penetrant Testing
Chapter 19
Developer
The five classifications of developer listed in BS EN 571 are:
•Form a Dry
•Form b Water-soluble
•Form c Water-suspendable
•Form d Solvent-based
•Form e Peelable
The application of developer in visible penetrant

applications should be in a uniform coat obtained by a
series of light passes necessary to provide a thin white
background. A heavy coat will mask fine indications. The
can or gun should be held about 12 ins. (30cm) from the
surface.
Developer
Dry powder developer application
Dry powder developer is applied in a number of

ways:
•Dust storm cabinet.

•Electrostatic or flock gun spray.
•Insufflator (puffer).
•Fluidised bed.
Developer
Dry powder developer
Advantages Disadvantages
• Easy to handle. • Difficult to see if properly

applied.
• No hazardous
vapours. • Fine powders can be
hazardous.
• Easy to remove.
• Does not offer the best
degree of colour contrast.
Developer
Aqueous liquid developer
Aqueous liquid developers can be sprayed or flowed on. However,
in the vast majority of cases the application is by dip and drain.
Dip time is usually no more than 30 seconds.
When aqueous developers are used they are applied before drying
and therefore development takes place during the drying phase.
Thus there can be a significant saving of processing time.
Water-suspended developer
Water-suspended developer must be thoroughly agitated before
the parts are immersed.
Water-soluble developer
Water-soluble developers become a solution with water.
Developer
Aqueous Developer
• No vapours or dust. • Difficult to apply evenly.
• Cheaper than non- • Requires drying after

aqueous. application.
Developer
Solvent-based developer (non-aqueous)

Non-aqueous developers are invariably sprayed either from
aerosols or paint type sprayers. The developer must be
thoroughly agitated as there is a tendency for the particles to
agglomerate. It is wise therefore, especially with aerosols, to
test the spray quality before applying to the test surface.
The developer must be sprayed from a distance exceeding

300mm(12ins.) so that it falls on the area of interest in an
almost dry thin even coat. If used with colour contrast
penetrant the developer coat should almost obscure the
background surface. When applied as part of a fluorescent
system, the coating should be only just discernible in daylight
conditions.
Developer
Non-Aqueous Developer
• Most sensitive. • Hazardous solvents.
• Usable with fluorescent • Higher cost.

or colour contrast.
• Need to be correctly
applied.
Developer
Developer Sensitivity
• Dry powder 100 - 140 %
• Aqueous solution 110 - 150 %
• Aqueous suspension 120 - 200%
• Non-Aqueous 120 - 240%

Penetrant Testing
Chapter 20
Equipment Checks
Overall System Performance
• Chromium plated cracked test panel.
• Cracked test piece.
• Quench cracked aluminium alloy block.

Control Checks
Water-wash temperature and pressure Daily

Colour intensity Monthly
Penetrant remover check Monthly
Developer check Daily
UV lamp output check Daily
UV monitor check Annual
Water-washable penetrant, water tolerance check
Maintenance Checks
Tank levels Daily

Equipment cleanliness Daily
Airline filters/cleanliness Daily
Processing units Weekly
UV lamp maintenance Weekly
Clean tanks Weekly
Storage of Penetrant
Low Temperatures
• In a modern dye penetrant the dye is contained

in the penetrating oil in the form of an emulsion.
• If penetrant materials are stored at a temperature

of less than 0°C de-emulsification may occur.
• If this happens the dye cannot easily be re-

emulsified and the penetrant is wasted.
High Temperatures
• Storage at high temperature (65°C or higher)

can severely degrade the fluorescing ability
of a fluorescent penetrant.
Sunlight and other UV light
• The fluorescing ability of a fluorescent penetrant

can be severely degraded by excessive
exposure to sunlight or UV light.
Advantages of DPI
• Applicable to all non-porous materials.

• Able to test large parts with a portable kit.
• Batch testing.
• Applicable to small parts with complex
geometry.
• Simple,cheap, easy to interpret.
• Good sensitivity.
• Training requirements typically less than for
other NDT methods.
P39-59 of your notes
Disadvantages of DPI
• Will only detect defects open to the surface.

• Careful surface preparation required.
• Not applicable to porous materials.
• Temperature dependent.
• Cannot retest indefinitely.
• Compatibility of chemicals.
• Time consuming.

Welcome To CIAST and Liquid Penetrant Testing

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Welcome To CIAST and Liquid Penetrant Testing

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Welcome to CIAST

• To explain the basic principles of penetrant

Introduce you to Penetrant Testing (PT)

Objective of the course:

To gain sufficient theoretical and practical

We start at 0900 and finish at 1615 on Monday to

An introduction to NDT – Penetrant, Ultrasonic, etc.

Theory of penetrant testing.

Practical experience of using both colour contrast and

Product technology – Which covers production processes ie

The PCN Level 2 LPI exam will take place on day 5.

NDT, (a.k.a. NDI or NDE ) in addition to a visual,

• Liquid Penetrant (PT).

What can we hope to find?

Magnetic Particle – surface and slightly sub-surface flaws in

Ultrasonic – near, far surface and internal flaws in most

Radiography - surface and internal flaws in most materials.

Eddy Current – near and far surface flaws in conductive

Liquid Penetrant Inspection

The length of a surface-breaking discontinuity can be determined readily, but the

Magnetic Particle Inspection

The length of a discontinuity can be determined from the indication, but no

Eddy Current inspection

The length of a discontinuity can be determined. The depth of a discontinuity or

Liquid Penetrant Inspection

An early form of penetrant testing was used in the pottery

As you can see

Spent black engine oil was mixed with kerosene and

This method was known as OIL AND WHITE.

Liquid Penetrant Inspection (LPI) is often

• LPI is a surface inspection method and along

• LPI is applicable to all non-porous, non-

LPI is a time consuming method of inspection, it

Mechanical methods – brushing and blasting

• Oils and Greases

Vapour degreasing plant -

• Penetrant can be applied by almost any method,

• As an example, a dip and drain method will usually

• If at any time the penetrant dries out then the whole

Methods of penetrant application

• Penetration / dwell time.

• BS EN 571-1 states that penetrant dwell or contact time

THE PENETRANT MUST NEVER DRY OUT!

Penetrating fluid applied to component and drawn

Interaction of adhesive and cohesive forces.

P15 of your notes

Interaction of adhesive and cohesive forces.

Capillary pressure increases as the diameter of the

A good penetrant must have

Contact angle is strongly

Flaw entrapment efficiency describes the ability of a

• Surface tension is the cohesive force that acts in the

• Viscosity is a measure of internal friction.

• Viscosity is strongly temperature dependent.

• The specific gravity of any material is its

A liquid cannot act as a penetrant if it does not have:

GOOD WETTING ABILITY

HIGH SURFACE TENSION

• Has good wetting ability.

• These groups of materials can be sensitised - made

• National codes and standards such as BS EN 3452-2

• The halogen and sulphur content of penetrant