Basic Knowledge

Rev nr Rev date Prepared Accepted Details

00 23-03-2007 ES JV

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 Phased Array
- Basic Knowledge

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 Phased Arrays

• Phased Array technology is the ability to modify

electronically the acoustic probe characteristics
• Modification of probe characteristics is performed
by introducing time shifts in the signals sent to
and received from individual elements of an array
probe

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 Phased Arrays
Advantages of Phased Array
• High speed electronic scanning without moving
parts
• Improved inspection capabilities through software
control of beam characteristics
• Inspection possible with multiple angles with
single probe
• Greater flexibility for inspection of complex
geometries
– Focusing
– Optimisation of beam angle
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 Phased Array Probes
• A linear array is basically a long
conventional crystal

• Cut in many small elements, that can be

individually excited

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 Phased Array Probes
Probe parameters
g

p e

• n = Total number of elements

• e = Width of an element
• g = Gap
• p = Pitch, distance between centre of two elements
• A = Aperture
• Aeff = Effective aperture
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 Phased Array Probes
Wedge parameters

• x1 = Distance from back of wedge to first element

• h1 = Height to middle of first element
• a inc = wedge incident angle
• a ref = Refracted angle in specimen

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 Phased Array Probes
Probe Construction
• Components of the Phased Array is similar to that of a
conventional probe
Acoustic matching

Piezocomposite

Backing material

Coaxial cable, up to 128

wires (128 elements)

•Whether single element or phased array probe, the piezo

effects are the same and layers of construction essentially
identical.

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 Phased Array Probes
Probe Design Variations
•Probes are designed with elements arranged to a known geometry.
•The most common designed is the linear one dimensional (or 1D
array) array.
•Each probe is manufactured for specific applications, (delivery
months rather than weeks)
•Typical array designs are

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 Scanning Techniques

Linear
Linear(electronic)
(electronic)Scan
Scan Sectorial (azimuthal) Scan

•Linear scanning is the ability to move the acoustic beam at a pre-determined

angle along the axis of the array without any physical movement.
•Sectorial Scanning is the ability to steer the beam through various angles, this is
achieved by constantly adjusting the firing sequence for all of the elements in
order to obtain the desired focal laws.
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 Scanning Techniques
Electronic (Linear) Scanning
Active Group

•Electronic or linear scanning is the ability to move the

acoustic beam along the active axis of the array without
any mechanical movement.
•The beam movement is performed by multiplexing the
active elements within the group, extent of the scanning is
limited only to the number of elements in the array.
•This technique is frequently used as a zero degree or
normal beam application for the inspection of wrought or
cast products and can also be used with the aid of angled
wedges to interrogate complete fusion zones of
weldments.

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 Scanning Techniques
Azimuthal (Sectorial) Scanning
•Azimuthal or sectorial scanning is the ability
to change the acoustic beam angle and
focusing by constantly changing focal laws.
•Sectorial scans use the same set of elements,
but alter the time delays to sweep the beam
through a series of angles.
•Sectorial scanning is at it’s most powerful
when scanning complex geometries such as
turbine blade/disc roots where interpretation
by conventional ultrasonics is extremely
difficult due to the large number of indications
present at any one time.

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 Beam Characteristics
Beam Focusing
Beam focusing is the ability to converge the energy of the ultrasonic
beam into a small focal spot

A phased array probe cannot focus at a range longer than its Natural
Near Zone, eg
•5 Mhz probe, 32 elements 1mm pitch by 10mm wide, firing 32
elements generating shear waves in steel.
•Effective crystal size 32mm. Near zone length D²/4 = 394mm.

Therefore this probe cannot operate at a focal range greater than

394mm for shear waves.
A phased array probe cannot focus at a distance which will cause the outer
elements to go to a critical diffraction angle. This angle depends on he shoe
material. In practice, the minimum focal range of a phased array probe is 0.1
of its natural near zone, so in the above example you should not attempt to
focus below 39mm. If a shorter focal range is required then fewer elements
should be used.
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 Beam Characteristics
Beam Steering
Beam steering without a wedge is restricted to the 6dB drop beam spread emanating
from an individual array element.
The capability to steer a beam is reliant upon the beam spread being interactive with
the beam spreads from the adjacent excited elements.
Maximum steering angles can be estimated by using the formula below where ‘e’
represents the element width in the active plane. It should be noted that extreme
angles of beam steering will result in a significant drop in ultrasonic sensitivity which
can be remedied by adding an angled wedge to the probe.
As a rule of thumb, the beam can be steered without a wedge to approximately +/- 40
and can be safely steered on a wedge to +/- 20° of the designated refracted wedge
angle. The restriction when using an angle wedge is not the steering capability but the
physical restraints of the wedge design.

Sine  = 0.5 λ
e

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 Beam Characteristics
Element Size & Beam Forming
A Point A is ok because it falls
inside the beam width of all four
elements
B
Point B is gives unpredictable
results because only one beam
width intercepts the target.

Sine  = 0.5 λ
e
e

The above illustration illustrates two target points. Target point A falls within the
beam spread falls within the beam spread angle of each of the four elements and
therefore the beam can be steered and focused at point A. However, point B
would give poor results because it falls outside the beam spread of three of the
elements therefore resulting in extremely poor sensitivity and exceptionally poor
resolution. Improving beam steering capability is usually improved by reducing
element size but can also be achieved by selecting a lower frequency probe.
Selecting a lower frequency probe would also compromise test sensitivity and
resolution, therefore reducing element size is the preferred option.
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 Beam Characteristics
Beam Width
It is important to be able to calculate the beam width at the point
where the beam is focused, This information is required in order to
set the angular resolution between focal laws. It is also useful to
know when performing data analysis.
Formula for Beam Width= Fλ/D

Where F=Chosen focal range.

D=Active length of elements or diameter
λ =Probe wave length

So for a 5 MHz probe, element length of 32mm generating shear

waves in steel focused at 120mm would give a beam width of;
=120x0.65/32 produces a beam width of approximately 2.5mm

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 Beam Characteristics
Beam Movement Resolution
The resolution that can be obtained from a phased array probe in the non
focused direction is no greater than that for a conventional probe. For this
reason there is little or no advantage in collecting data with a scan increment
less than ¼ of the probe/beam width. Hence for a probe with a crystal width of
8mm the encoder increment should be set at no more than 2mm.

The same rule applies to the beam in the focal direction. For example if a 5 MHz
probe generates a beam width of 2mm then a increment of 0.5mm is sufficient.
When setting the resolution for azimuthal scanning the beam width is calculated
and then converted into degrees at the appropriate range when creating the focal
law. It is recommended that for critical defect sizing ¼ of the beam width is used
for the angular increment. Then use the following formula to convert the ¼ beam
width mm’s to ¼ beam width degrees.

Azimuth increment in degrees = tan¹ Azimuth increment in mm’s

Range to focal point

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 Beam Characteristics
Beam Movement Resolution (cont)

Scanning direction,
collect data no less than
¼ probe beam width,
(encoder setting)
Range to focal Direction of sound
point 120mm
Beam width propagation
2.5mm

Scanning direction, collect

Using the example above data no less than ¼ probe
width, (encoder setting)
0.625/120 tan¹ =

0.22º for azimuthal resolution

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 Inspection Sensitivity
Linear Scans
In principle, linear phased array scans are the same as any other automated
inspection system and can be applied in the same manner as called for in the
standard inspection codes such as Asme 5.
like other automated inspection systems the probe cannot be dynamically skewed
during scanning to optimise the coupling and signal response. For this reason
relatively high inspection sensitivities are recommended with phased array probes.
It is recommended (unless otherwise specified) that a 3mm SDH (side drilled hole)
at the focal depth is used as the calibration reference. The signal from the target
should be set at 80% screen height. The system is now linear down to 5% screen
height providing a recording sensitivity of 24dB. It should also be noted that
phased array probes can be relatively large and for this reason can be be more
difficult to achieve consistent coupling therefore it may be necessary to make a
transfer/gain adjustment to all scans.
As a general rule it is suggested that two scan gains(channels) are used for any
linear scan. One scan at the calibration gain+10dB and one channel set with 10 dB
less than the calibration gain. This is important because once the signal exceeds
100% it is said to be “saturated” thus preventing further manipulation of the signal
during the analysis stage.

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 Inspection Sensitivity
Azimuthal (Sectorial) Scans
Azimuthal scans are different to linear or conventional scanning in that the beam
angle is not constant but swept through a selection of angles. It is common
practice to to perform a scan at normal incidence to a weld fusion face.
To compensate for the varying angle it is recommended that that the data
collection sensitivity is increased.
It is suggested that a 3mm SDH (side drilled hole) at the focal depth is used as the
calibration reference. The signal from this target is set at 80% screen height. For
the reference gain it is recommended that a further 10dB is added. This will
provide a sensitivity of 34dB more sensitive than a 3mm SDH at 5% screen height.
It is also recommended that another channel at 10dB below the calibration gain
setting is added to prevent saturated signals and assist with data analysis.
As with linear scans additional transfer loss/gain should be applied if required.

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 Formula
• Beam Steering Sine  = 0.5 λ • Focal Depth Beam Width Sine  = 0.5 λ
e D

• Near Field D²
4λ • velocity wavelength x frequency

• frequency velocity
• wavelegth velocity
wavelength
frequency

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 Array Suitability
Array Selection
When considering the design of a phased array probe
careful thought should be given to the following

•Frequency
•Element Width
•Number of Elements (e)
•Pitch (p)

ATTENTION TO DETAIL-TAKE 5 MINUTES

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 Array Suitability
Element Frequency (f)
•Simple approach:
If conventional UT uses say 10 MHz consider
using the same for phased array.
•In practice, higher frequencies (and larger
apertures) provide better signal to noise ratio which
also results in a tighter improved focal spot.
•Manufacturing problems occur at high frequencies,
less robust, (>15MHz)

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 Array Suitability
Element Size (e)
•As element size (e) decreases
Beam steering capability increases.
Number of elements required rapidly increases.
Manufacturing problems, minimum element size
0.15-0.2mm, less robust
More demands on equipment hardware/software
due to the increased number of focal laws.
•Limiting factor often the “budget”, not the physics
or manufacturing.

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 Array Suitability
Number of Elements
The number of elements in a probe is a compromise
between the following factors.

•Desired physical coverge of the probe.

•Focusing capability.
•Electronic system capability.
•Steering capability.
•Cost

Example
An array with a large working range and a large steering
capability requires a large quantity of small elements, such an array
may exceed the electronic capability of the equipment. If you desired
to focus the probe at a large depth in the material but were restricted
to firing only 16 elements one option would be to increase the
individual element size to achieve the desired focussing.
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