What are Phased Arrays?

 Phased array technology is the ability to modify

electronically the acoustic probe characteristics

 Probe modifications are performed by introducing

time shifts in the signals sent to (pulse) and
received from (echo) individual elements of an
array probe

 Any UT technique for flaw detection and sizing

can be applied using phased array probes
 Why Phased Array?
 High speed electronic scanning without moving
parts
 Improved inspection capabilities through software
control of beam characteristics
 Inspection with multiple angles with a single
electronically controlled probe
 Many configurations: P/E, T/R, TOFD, Tandem
 Greater flexibility for inspection of complex
geometries
• Optimized focusing
• Optimized beam angle
 Phased Array Terminology
 Active Aperture  Focal Laws
 Apodisation  Linear Scan
 Aperture  Phased Array
 Azimuthal Scan  Sectorial Scan
 Beam forming  Steering Aperture
 Beam Steering  Passive Aperture
 Delay Laws  Virtual Probe
 How Phased Arrays Work
 Probe Design Parameters
 Electronics (probe control and data
collection
 Beam Forming
 Design Parameters of
Phased Array Probes

 A linear array (1D) is

a long conventional
probe

 The probe is cut into

many small elements
that are individually
excited
 Design Parameters of
Phased Array Probes
A
e

p g
PROBE PARAMETERS
Frequency (f)
Total number of elements in array (n)
Total aperture in steering or active direction (A)
Height or Elevation, aperture in mechanical or passive direction (H)
Width of an individual element (e)
Pitch, center-to-center distance between two successive elements (p)
 Probe Manufacturing
Composite Technology
Thin rods of ceramics

polymer
Piezzo composite

PA Probes are based on the Composite Technology.

Signal to noise ratio obtained from composite transducers is typically10-
30dB greater than obtained from piezo-ceramic probes.

Piezo-composite transducer is made by using thin rods of

ceramic material embedded into a polymer.
 Probe Manufacturing
Composite Technology
Elements
(thin layer of metal)

Piezzo composite

A metallic layer is deposited on the piezo-composite.

This metallic layer conforms to the element pattern and provides

electrical contacts for each element.
Probe Manufacturing: Casing
The probe construction is similar to that of a conventional probe

Acoustic matching

Piezo composite

Backing product

Cable up to 128 coaxial

wires
 LINEAR 1D
Numerous linear probe designs
 The probe can mechanically be focused in the passive
axis
 Phased Array and transducer technology allows for
many shapes - flat, curved, conical, elliptical, etc.

15L128E25.6-6 10L16E5-6 ¾’’

5L128E96-10C40

5L16E16-10
5L128E128-12F36
 Design Parameters Of
Phased Array Probes
 Ultrasonic phased arrays consist of a series of
individual elements, each with its own
connector, time delay circuit and A/D
converter

 Elements are acoustically insulated from each

other

 Elements are pulsed in groups with pre-

calculated time delays for each element
- i.e. “phasing”
 Phased Array Probes
 The elements are purchased as an “array” with
known geometry

 These arrays are manufactured using several

designs - each array is specifically built for the
application, as with conventional ultrasonic
transducers

 Typical array designs are:

• Linear
• Matrix
• Circular
• Sectorial-annular
 Phased Array Probes

15L128E25.6-6 10L16E5-6 ¾’’

5L128E96-10C40

5L16E16-10
5L128E128-12F36
Common Probe Geometries

1D Linear Array
Common Probe Geometries

1D Annular Array

2D Sectorial Annular
Array
Common Probe Geometries

Daisy Array
 Phased Array
Wave-forming Fundamentals
 Conventional UT Probe
Configuration
 With a conventional UT probe, a single
piezoelectric element converts an electrical signal
into a mechanical vibration.

Source: NDT Resource Center

(www.ndt-ed.org)
Phased Array Probe Configuration
 It is like having many small conventional
UT probes integrated inside a single
probe.

128 elements !
 Phased Array Wave-forming
Delay

Time
Focal law

Wave front
Element

 Beam steering using phased-array probe (Emission)

• Acoustic beam generated by Huyghens principle
• Appropriate delays introduced electronically during
emission to generate angle beam
Phased Array Wave-forming

 Beam steering using phased-array probe (Reception)

• Appropriate delays introduced electronically during
reception
• Only signals satisfying delay law shall be in phase
and generate significant signal after summation
 Phased Array Wave-forming

Global Overview of Phased Array Signal Processing

For economic reasons, pulsers are usually multiplexed.
Instrumentation nomenclature such as a ‘Focus’ 32/128
refers to an instrument with 32 pulsers multiplexed into a
total of 128 ultrasonic channels.
Wave-forming
Focused Beam
Inclined Beam
Focused Beam – Receive Side
Inclined Beam – Receive Side
Focused and Inclined Beam
Receive Side
Focal Law Generation

Delay Law

Material Velocity

Geometrical
Focal Point

Element Delay
Element Number Focal Law
Element Gain
 Focal Law Calculators
 Native Tools
• TomoView
• OmniScan “Program Probe”
 EPRI Workbook
 PASS, CIVA, etc.
Focal Law Calculators
Phased Array Scanning
 Beam Focusing
 The capability to converge the acoustic
energy into a small focal spot

 Allows for focusing at several depths

using a single probe

 Symmetrical (e.g. parabolic) focal laws

(time delay vs. element position)
 Beam Focusing
Unfocused Beam:

 Near-field and natural divergence of

acoustic beam are determined by total
aperture A and wavelength 
2
 Near-field N  A
4 
sin   0.5 
 Divergence (half angle , at –6 dB ) A

 Beam dimension (at depth z) z

d
A
 Beam Focusing
Focused Beam :
 Focusing coefficient (K) is defined as

where F : focal distance F

N : near-field
K
N

 Beam dimension (dst) in steering plane

at focal distance is given by
F
d st   
A
 Beam Focusing Theory
Linear Probe Pitch 1mm, Frequency 5 MHz
Number of elements 10 16 32

Aperture (mm) 10 16 32

N Fresnel distance
(mm) 84 216 865

Focusing depth (mm) 84 84 84

K 0.99 0.39 0.10

d (at focusing depth

mm) 2.49 1.55 0.78
In water using a velocity of 1.48 mm/sec
 Beam Focusing Beam Profiles
Focusing 10 Focusing 16 Focusing 32
elements Aperture 10 elements Aperture elements Aperture
x 10mm 16 x 10mm 32 x 10mm
Dynamic Depth Focusing

PA imaging without DDF PA imaging using DDF

Schematic Representation
of Dynamic Depth Focusing

Mechanical Displacement

FOCUS DEPTH (PULSER)

Beam displacement

DYNAMIC FOCUSING (RECEIVER)

c = velocity in material

DDF is an excellent way of inspecting thick

components in a single pulse. The beam is
refocused electronically on its return.
 Beam Steering
 The capability to modify the
refracted angle of the beam
generated by the array probe

 Allows for multiple angle

inspections, using a single probe

 Applies symmetrical (e.g. linear)

focal laws
Illustration of Sectorial
(Azimuthal) Scanning
 Sectorial Scanning
 The ability to scan a complete sector of volume without
any probe movement
 Useful for inspection of complex geometries, or those
with space restrictions
 Combines the advantages of a wide beam and/or
multiple focused probes in a single phased array probe

N
2......
1
 Beam Steering Capability
 Is related to the width of an individual
element of the array
 Maximum steering angle (at –6 dB), given
by

sin  st  0.5 
e

 Steering range can be modified using an

angled wedge
 Implications of Element Size
on Beam-forming
Point A is OK because all
rays are within elemental A
B
beamwidth

Point B yields unexpected 

results because rays are
outside elemental beam
width e

Conclusion: The smaller sin  st  0.5 
e
the element size, the
better for steering
 Electronic Scanning
Active Group
 The ability to move the
acoustic beam along the axis
of the array without any
mechanical movement
 The beam movement is
performed by time
multiplexing of the active
group of elements
 Scanning extent limited by:
• number of elements in
array
• number of channels in
acquisition system
Electronic Scanning
Combined Beam Processing

Electronic combined with steering and focusing

 Weld Scanning

Conceptual animation showing weld inspection using

electronic scanning. Emulates typical ASME-type shear wave
inspection using line scan (much faster) rather than raster
scanning.
A typical weld inspection requires two or more angles with
defined raster size, step size, etc. (mechanical movement in
the scan direction)
There is a need to cover the weld, HAZ, any position
errors => significant amount of scanning
Tandem for Vertical Defects
Linear Probes – Electronic Scanning
Linear Probes – Sectorial Scanning
 Continual or Wrapped Scanning

NORMAL BEAM ANGLE BEAM

 Summary of Scan Types

For electronic scans, arrays are multiplexed using the same focal law
For sectorial scans, the same elements are used, but the focal laws are
changed
For Dynamic Depth Focusing, only the receiver focal laws are
changed in hardware
 Array Selection

 Frequency
 Element width (e)
 Number of elements (n)
 Pitch (p)
 Element Frequency (f)
 Simple approach:
• If conventional UT uses, e.g. 10 MHz, use same
frequency for arrays
• If conventional UT uses 10 mm aperture, use
similar aperture with PA (e.g. 10 elements of 1 mm
width)
 Higher frequencies (and larger apertures) may
provide better signal/noise => tighter, optimized focal
spot
 Main manufacturing problems occur at high
frequencies (>15MHz) and small elements
 Element Size (e)
 Element size (specifically ‘e’) is a key issue
As ‘e’ decreases:
• Beam steering capability increases
• The number of elements increases rapidly
• Manufacturing problems may arise
• Minimum element size ~0.15-0.20 mm
 Limiting factor often “budget”, not physics or
manufacturing
 Number of Elements (n)
Number of elements is a compromise between:
 Desired physical coverage of the probe and
sensitivity
 Focusing capability

 Steering capability

 Electronic system capability

 Cost
Example:
An array with a large working range AND large steering
capability requires a large amount of small elements.
Such an array may exceed the electronic capability
of the system, or the budget.
Power of the Elements
1 Element

2 Elements

4 Elements

8 Elements
 Design Compromise
Sectorial scans:
different focal laws are applied to the same group of
elements
smaller elements needed to maximize steering capability
Typical sectorial scan would use a smaller number
(e.g. 16), with a small pitch (<1mm)

Linear scans:
same focal laws multiplexed through many elements
physical coverage important (raster extent)
Typical linear scan would use a greater number (e.g.
32+), with a larger pitch (>1mm)
 Pitch / Aperture
 Number of active elements per focal law is
typically 16
 Maximum aperture (A max) = Pitch (p) x 16
 For a high steering range, p must be small
 For a good sensitivity, a large Near Zone
distance provides good focusing coefficient,
therefore A must be large
 The challenge is to find the best compromise
In terms of ratio p / A
 Element Positioning (p)
 Typical arrays use side-by-side elements with
acoustic insulation as gap

 Grating lobes generally minimized by selecting

suitable element width

 To reduce costs, use of a “sparse array”, with

larger gaps between elements is possible

 Sparse arrays tend to produce stronger

grating lobes - these can be minimized by
using random arrangements of the elements.
 Array Lobes
 Far-field pattern of an array probe
shows a main beam and grating
lobes at regular angular spacing

 Array lobes reduce useful steering

range and may generate multiple
images
 Array Lobes
A
Fourier Transform:
 Beam width (main beam,
e
p lobes) determined by
aperture A
 Steering width determined
Z by element width e
 Angular position of lobes
Fourier Transform determined by frequency f
sinc(ex/z) sinc(Ax/z) and pitch p

 lobe  
p
-z/p z/p
Array Lobes - Rules of Thumb

 Element size (e)  λ, Side

Lobes will occur
 e < λ /2, No Side Lobes
 λ /2 < e < λ, Lobe  will
depend on steering angle
 Array Lobes
Influence of pitch (p)
n=8 Array
lobe
Main
lobe
(for A = fixed)
p=9

n=12
p=6
• If p reduces, and n
increases
n=16 • then lobe distance
p=4.
5 increases
• and lobe amplitude
n=20
p=3. decreases
6
 Design Issues - Equivalent Apertures
6 Elements (P) 1mm) 12 Elements (P) 0.4mm) 4 Elements (P)1mm) 8 Elements (P) 0.4mm)
 Design Issues
Equivalent Apertures

6 Elements p=0.4mm 3 Elements p=1mm

Questions?