Digitisation Principles

and
Phased Array Imaging
 Advantages of Digital Recording
 Permanent record of all collected data
 Various signal processing options
 Easy comparison of results
 Re-analysis of raw data at any time
 Variety of visual displays available
 Integrated data acquisition and probe
manipulation control
 Multiple channel data can be viewed and
compared with an overlay
 Digitisation of Analogue Waveforms
Analogue waveform
+100%

-100%
Separation set
by digitiser speed Points of sampling analogue data
 Digital Amplitude
 Most contemporary instruments are fitted
with 8 bit digitisers (28)
 In computer terms this means a digital
range of numbers from 0 to 255
 Full wave rectified data = 0 to 255 this is
used for phased arrays and pulse-echo
 RF data = -128 to +127. This is more
typically used for TOFD imaging
 Phased Array Digitisers
 Phased array instruments are fitted with 8
bit 28, 10 bit 210 or 14 bit 214 digitisers
 The digitisers operate at frequencies of
100MHz, 120MHz or 200MHz dependent
upon the unit being used
 Points of Amplitude
+127
+100%

Zero

-100%
-128
8 Bit digitiser in un-Rectified mode
 Points of Amplitude
+255
+100%

0%
0
8 Bit Digitiser Full Wave Rectified mode
 Logarithmic Amplification Rectified
 Amplification is usually logarithmic thus
signal heights can be expressed with the
following equation:
 8 bit digitisers (28) = 255
 20 log10 H1/H2
 Rectified = 20 log10 255/1 = 48dB
 Logarithmic Amplification RF Un-rectified

 Un-rectified data uses half of the digital

numbers available to produce the screen
display
 For a range of 0 to 255 this represents
approximately +128 and – 128 digitised
intervals
 RF = 20 log10 128/1 = 42dB
 Sampling Rate
 Working from first principles
 1msec = 1x10-6sec
 25MHz = 25 x106Hz
 Thus 1ms = 25 samples
 So one sample = 1/25 = 0.04ms
 Digitisation at 25MHz
+100%

-100% 0.04ms

Separation of 0.04ms between sample points

Time Across One Wavelength
 Time taken to complete 1l is
termed a period
 If probe frequency = 5MHz
(5x106Hz)
 Then 1ms = 5 cycles
 Thus 1 period = 1/5 = 0.2ms
 One Time Period

+100%

Time across one wave cycle is called a period

Distance across one wave cycle is wavelength

-100%
 Samples Taken In A Period

 Using the previous data

 1 period = 0.2ms
(5mhz probe frequency)
 Digitisation rate = 0.04ms per
sample (25mhz sampling rate)
 Which equates 0.2ms/0.04ms = 5
 Therefore 5 samples are taken in
each period (full cycle)
 Absolute Minimum Sampling
 In order to digitally recreate a sinusoidal
wave from sampling an analogue signal,
at least 2 samples per period must be
taken ( Nyquist limit )
Potential Error Of Only
2 Samples Per Period
Sample points on analogue
waveform

No digitally recreated signal

Ideal Minimum Sampling
5 sample points on
analogue waveform

Digitally recreated
waveform within 10%
of analogue signal
Pulse Excitation Voltage Types
Spike pulse

(Preferred)
Tone burst pulse

Square wave pulse

 Effect Of Changing Excitation
Pulse Width
17k 17.5k 18k usecs
Width = 12.375 ns vmin = 497.647 v
Un-tuned
pulse
vmin = 547.843 v
Width = 25.150 ns
Tuned
pulse

Width = 50.699 ns vmin = 544.706 v

Un-tuned
pulse
 Pulse Voltage Time
Setting the driver voltage to half a period
of the array dominant frequency:
 1ms/ Dominant frequency in Hz

 1ms/5MHz = 0.2ms = 200ns

 0.5 of 200ns = 100ns

 Most PA systems have software that

incorporate calculation functions to

accomplish this
Signal Averaging
Sample 1

Sample 2

Sample 3

Sample 4

Averaged
signal
Features Of Signal Averaging
 Random electronic noise is
averaged out reducing influence
 Grain interference not reduced
 Standing echoes not reduced
 True indications not affected
 Grating lobes are not removed
 Element Excitation
 1 focal law = 1 channel
 1 channel is subdivided into the number of
active elements
 Each active element has an individual
delay
 1 pulse from the PRF is split into the
number of active channels with associated
delays
 Number of ‘A’ scans
 Using swept angle scans (sectorial)
each point of resolution requires one
individual ‘A’ scan

 So if a scan of 30 to 70 degrees is
desired with a resolution of 1 degree
increments then 40 ‘A’ scans are
required
 PRF & Scan Speed
 If the collection rate is 1 swept beam
per mm
 Using the previous example of 40
‘A’ scans per sweep then the pulser
has to run at 40 times the scan
speed measured in mm/sec
 Example: Desired scan speed is
150mm/sec x 40 = 6000 pulses per
second minimum PRF
 Use Of Averaging
 Using an averaging of 16 requires each
degree increment or ‘A’ scan to be pulsed
16 times in order to produce 1 ‘A’ scan
image
 So in order to cover 40 degrees the pulser
will fire 16 x 40 = 640 pulses
 Thus in order to scan at 150mm/sec the
PRF would need to be 640 x 150 = 96000
pulses per second
 This would not be possible
 Practical Solution
 Reduce the Averaging
 Reduce the resolution from 1 degree to 2
degree increments
 Reduce the beam sweep
 Scan at slower speed
 Do We Need Averaging?
 Using multiple elements in phased array
results in the receiver circuit summing all
the individual ‘A’ scans from each element

 The effect of this is to average the signal

noise during the refocusing which reduces
the necessity of using a separate
averaging function
Pulse Repetition Frequency PRF
 Rate of voltage pulses
transmitted from pulser to
transducer
 Not to be confused with probe
frequency
 Selectable PRF values typically
range from ~ 60Hz to ~
15,000Hz
 Effect Of Erroneously
Low Pulse Rate
 May lead to intermittent data
imaging
 Loss of lines of data
 Serious risk of missing defects
 Lines of Missed Data

Causes: low PRF, high travel speed, wide

swept angles, high resolution, high
averaging, low communication speed, small
increments of data collection
Effect of Excessively High PRF
 Low velocity materials or thick
cross-sections may not return
pulses before subsequent pulsed
waves are transmitted
 Potential to cause standing
echoes from colliding wavefronts
(ghosts)
 Digitisation overload on
instruments as well as data
bottlenecks
 Example of Ghosting
False indications This image is
Flat bottom
from PRF obtained by
hole
ghosts reducing
the
PRF
 Probe centre frequency
( Dominant frequency )
6.0 MHz
100% Peak
centre
90% value
80%
frequency
70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MHz
 Bandwidth
100%

90%

80%

70%

60%
Bandwidth Bandwidth ~ 4.0MHz
50%
measured
40%
at -6dB of
30%
peak value
20%

10%

0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MHz

4.0 to 8.0 MHZ

Probe Frequency Spectrum
100%
Peak 6.0 MHz
90%
value centre
80% frequency
70%

60%

50%

40%

30%

20%

10%

0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MHz

Low frequency High frequency

long wavelength Short wavelength
Wavelengths Associated With
A Broad Band Probe
 Band Pass Filters
Peak
100% value
90%

80%

70%

60% Low pass

High pass Filter to
50% Filter to 12MHz
40% 3MHz

30%

20%

10%

0%
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
MHz

General guide is to set the low pass at 2x centre frequency

and set the high pass to 0.5 of the centre frequency
(3-12MHz for the 6MHz centre frequency illustrated)
 Caution !
 If the high pass filter is set incorrectly you
will filter out relevant indications
 Flaw responses are typically received at
slightly lower frequencies than originally
transmitted
 Therefore individual circumstances require
careful adjustment and may warrant
switching off the high pass filter
 Example of Incorrect
Band-pass Filter Settings
20MHz Incorrect 5MHz Correct

1MHz Incorrect Wide Not

band ideal
 Video Smoothing Filters
 Video filtering is an
Pitch between
electronic feature smoothing point
used to create an set by a
envelope over the frequency
rectified signal to filter
reduce the
amplitude error
 Smoothing
improves the visual
appearance of the
display
 Example of Video Smoothing

Without With video

video smoothing
smoothing
 Greyscale Palette
+127
+100%

Zero

-100%
-128
8 bit digitisers(28) = 255 points
“A” Scan as Greyscale Image

Typically used for TOFD

Typical TOFD Image Using RF Waveform
Typical Phased Array Image
Using RF Waveform
 Colour Palette Used For Phased Array

Colours are selectable by operator

and Pulse Echo Imaging
+255
+100%

0%

One ‘A’ scan sector forms one angle within the beam
in the sectorial view
 Swept Angle Imaging

Individual ‘A’ scans

for each incremental
angle add up to form
the sector image
Swept Angle Imaging

B scan

C scan range

C scan
 Data Collection Rate
 Encoder set to indicate distance travelled
 Computer set to capture a number of A scans
per mm
 These accumulate to produce the volumetric
images in B scan, or C scan mode
 A Scan

Note: A scan angle

Amplitude colour palette

% Screen amplitude

Need to change
This A scan

Beam path range

S Scan (sector true depth)

Amplitude colour palette

Depth (mm or in)

Index position (mm or in.)

 S Scan (half path)

Amplitude colour palette

Beam Angles
(deg.)

Time of flight Half path

(mm, in. or µs)
 Encoded probe travel, mm (inch) B Scan

Beam path or True depth mm (in.)

Amplitude colour palette

 Index axis (mm or (inch)
C Scan

Encoded probe travel

(mm, (in.) or samples)

Half Path
Depth colour palette
Multiple View Image
 Acknowledgements
 Originally written by Tim Armitt at Lavender
International NDT Consultancy Services, UK

 Screen images produced using the R/DTech OmniScan

MX

 First revision January 2005 by Larry Etherington of

Eclipse Scientific Products Inc.

 This presentation is part of a series being produced by

the R/D Tech Certified Training Partners
Questions?