A Project Report On

Resistivity and Energy Band Gap Of

A Semiconductor
Members:
Gaurav Gupta 2018UIC3093
Abhishek Kumar Swain 2018UIC3091
Tilak Verma 2018UIC3090
Yash Mishra 2018UIC3088
Abhinav 2018UIC3089
Acknowledgement

This is to be acknowledge that this project had its completion

under the able guidance of REKHA BHARDWAJ Mam.
OBJECTIVES:
(I) To measure resistivity of a semiconductor
and a metal at room temperature .
(II) To measure resistivity of a semiconductor as
a function of temperature and determination of
energy band gap .
 Apparatus Used:
PID-TZ Controlled Oven :
The unit is a high quality PID (Proportional, Integral
and Differential) controller wherein the
temperatures can be set and controlled easily. The
P, I and D parameters are factory set ( P = 1.8, I =
300, D = 80) for immediate use, however, the user
may adjust these for specific applications as well
as auto-tune the oven whenever required. The
steps for these are given in the user manual of the
controller. A common controller may be used either
for our small oven, up to 200°C or a larger oven up
to 600°C. The two are switch selectable and use
thermocouple as temperature sensors

Fig 1
◇ 2. Constant Current Source, Model : CCS-01

It is an IC regulated current generator to provide a constant current to the outer probes

irrespective of the changing resistance of the sample due to change in temperatures. The
basic scheme is to use the feedback principle to limit the load current of the supply to preset
maximum value. Variations in the current are achieved by a potentiometer included for that
purpose. The supply is a highly regulated and practically ripples free d.c. source. The
constant current source is suitable for the resistivity measurement of thin films of metals/
alloys and semiconductors like germanium.
Fig 2
◇ 3. Four Probes Arrangement :

It has four individually spring loaded probes. The probes are collinear and
equally spaced. The probes are mounted in a teflon bush, which ensure a good
electrical insulation between the probes. A teflon spacer near the tips is also
provided to keep the probes at equal distance. The probe arrangement is
mounted in a suitable stand, which also holds the sample plate and RTD
sensor. This stand also serves as the lid of PID Controlled Oven. Proper leads
are provided for current, Voltage & Temp. measurement with their universal
connectors. For current measurement there is three pin connector which can
be connected to the CCS-01/ LCS-02 as per requirement of sample. For
voltage measurement BNC connector is used connected to DMV-001 unit. For
temperature measurement, a two pin connector is provided for connection
with PID- Controlled oven unit PID-200 at connector marked as Temperature
Sensor.
 Fig 3
Four Probe Arrangement
 Specifications
F(w/s) V/S (w/s)

w/s F(w/s)

0.100 13.853

0.141 9.704

0.200 6.917

0.333 4.159

0.500 2.780

1.000 1.504

1.414 1.223
4. Thermometer :

For Measuring Temperature

Fig 4
 Theory
The electrical resistance R of a material is defined as the ratio of voltage applied across it to the current that causes
it

R = V/I …1
Hence in resistivity measurements the dimensions of the material (length and cross sectional area of the wire in this
case) are also required. Based on the electrical resistivity, ρ, materials are classified as (i) conductors (metals), (ii)
semiconductors, and (iii) insulators.
Resistivity of semiconductor materials :
Electrical resistivities of semiconductor materials are very important for
making electronic devices; the purity of the material being the most important quality for this purpose. Hence to
account for the purity, resistivity is taken as the parameter. Greater the impurity, lower is the resistivity. Hence
resistivity is being considered as the most important parameter in semiconductor industry. Pure germanium has a
resistivity of 60 Ohm.cm. Pure silicon has a considerably higher resistivity, of the order of 60,000 Ohm-cm. By doping
(i.e., adding an impurity) a semiconductor, conductivity changes considerably.
◇ The four-probe method :
At a constant temperature, the resistance, R of a conductor is
proportional to its length L and inversely proportional to its area of cross section A.

Where ρ is the resistivity of the conductor and its unit is ohmmeter.

A semiconductor has electrical conductivity intermediate in magnitude between that of a conductor and
insulator. Semiconductor differs from metals in their characteristic property of decreasing electrical
resistivity with increasing temperature.
According to band theory, the energy levels of semiconductors can be grouped into two bands, valence
band and the conduction band. In the presence of an external electric field it is electrons in the valence
band that can move freely, thereby responsible for the electrical conductivity of semiconductors. In case of
intrinsic semiconductors, the Fermi level lies in between the conduction band minimum and valence band
maximum. Since conduction band lies above the Fermi level at 0K, when no thermal excitations are
available, the conduction band remains unoccupied. So conduction is not possible at 0K, and resistance is
infinite. As temperature increases, the occupancy of conduction band goes up, thereby resulting in
decrease of electrical resistivity of semiconductor.
◇ Resistivity of semiconductor by four probe method
1. The resistivity of material is uniform in the area of measurement.
2. If there is a minority carrier injection into the semiconductor by the current- carrying
electrodes most of the carriers recombine near electrodes so that their effect on conductivity
is negligible.
3. The surface on which the probes rest is flat with no surface leakage.
4. The four probes used for resistivity measurement contact surface at points that lie in a
straight line.
5. The diameter of the contact between metallic probes and the semiconductor should be
small compared to the distance between the probes.
6. The boundary between the current carrying electrodes and the bulk material is
hemispherical and small in diameter.
7. The surface of semiconductor material may be either conducting and non-conducting. A
conducting boundary is one on which material of much lower resistivity than semiconductor
has been plated. A non-conducting boundary is produced when the surface of the
semiconductor is in contact with insulator.
The function, f(w/S) is a divisor for computing resistivity which depends on the value of w and S
We assume that the size of the metal tip is infinitesimal and sample thickness is greater than the
distance between the probes,

Where V – the potential difference between inner probes in volts.

I – Current through the outer pair of probes in ampere.
S – Spacing between the probes in meter.
◇ Temperature dependence of resistivity of semiconductor:
Total electrical conductivity of a semiconductor is the sum of the conductivities of the valence
band and conduction band carriers. Resistivity is the reciprocal of conductivity and its temperature
dependence is given by

Where Eg – band gap of the material

T – Temperature in kelvin
K – Boltzmann constant, K – 8.6x10-5 eV/K
The resistivity of a semiconductor rises exponentially on decreasing the temperature.
 Procedure:
◇ Initially the current source is switched on .
◇ Then current meter is adjusted to the desired current value(2-4 mA).
◇ Then oven is switched on.
◇ Let the semi-conductor be heated to 373 K.
◇ The oven is the switched off and semiconductor is allowed to cool.
◇ Readings are noted corresponding to the every 5 K fall in temperature.
◇ Graph b/w ln of resistivity versus temperature is plotted.
 OBSERVATIONS:
◇ Distance b/w probe(s) = 0.2 cm.
◇ Thickness of the crystal(w)=0.5 cm.
◇ Current =0.5 mA.
 Observation Table:
Temperature Temperature
Voltage(mV) 1/T(k^(-1)) Resistivity(ρ) ln(ρ)
(°C) (°C)

70 27.5 343 2.91 9.90 2.28

68 28.0 341 2.93 10.17 2.32

66 29.2 339 2.94 1.60 2.36

64 30.5 337 2.96 11.06 2.40

62 31.6 335 2.98 11.47 2.44

60 32.9 333 3.00 11.94 2.48

58 34.2 331 3.02 12.42 2.52

56 35.6 329 3.04 12.93 2.56

54 37.1 327 3.06 13.46 2.60

52 38.6 325 3.08 14.01 2.64

Graph(ln(ρ) V/S T^(-1000)
Scale: 1cm = 0.02 units
 Calculations
◇ ρ= ρ0/f(w/s)
f(w/s)=6.93
1) ρ0=(27.5/0.5)*2*π*0.2= 68.6
ρ= ρ0/6.93=9.9Ωcm=0.099 Ωm
2) ρ0=28.0*0.8*π=70.3
ρ= ρ0 /6.93=0.1 Ωcm =0.001 Ωm
3) ρ0 =29.2*0.8* π=73.4
ρ= ρ0 /6.93=0.106Ωm
Similarly,4) ρ=0.110 Ωm,5) ρ=0.114 Ωm,6) ρ=0.119 Ωm,
7) ρ=0.124,8) Ωm ρ=0.129
Ρav =0.1176 Ωm
Calculation of Eg from graph
Eg=2klnρ/(1/T)=2k*slope=2*1.38*10-23 *3*103 =8.28*10-20 J=0.52eV
Percentage error=(0.64-0.52/0.64)*100=18.75%
 Result:
◇ Calculated value of Eg=8.28*10-20
J=0.52eV
◇ Resistivity of Ge crystal as a function of
temperature is shown by the graph .It
is seen that the resistivity of a
semiconductor varies with
temperature.
◇ Percentage error=18.759%
◇ Resistivity of semiconductor=0.1176 Ωm
 Precautions
◇ All four probes should be inclined at equal level
◇ Geometry of sample &electrical contacts should
be proper
◇ Electrical contacts to sample must be tight and
complete
◇ Measurement system should be calibrated before
measuring any material samples.
 Application Of Four Point
Probe Method
◇ A way of evaluating case depth on the surface of
steel hardened by the induction hardening
process was proposed . Change in the electrical
resistivity due to hardening was measured using a
four point probe method.
◇ To measure the sheet resistivity of a solar cell.
◇ Determining conductivity type of semiconductor
material.