 Over the past couple of decades many of the networks that

were built used different hardware and software

implementations, as a result they were incompatible and it
became difficult for networks using different specifications to
communicate with each other.

 To address the problem of networks being incompatible and

unable to communicate with each other, the International
Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) researched various
network schemes.

 The ISO recognised there was a need to create a NETWORK

MODEL that would help vendors to create interoperable
network implementations.
 The International Organisation for Standardisation
(ISO) is an International standards organisation
responsible for a wide range of standards,
including many that are relevant to networking.

 In 1984 in order to aid network interconnection

without necessarily requiring complete redesign,
the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference
model was approved as an international standard
for communications architecture.
 The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model is
a descriptive network scheme. It ensures greater
compatibility and interoperability between various types of
network technologies.

 The OSI model describes how information or data makes its

way from application programmes (such as spreadsheets)
through a network medium (such as wire) to another
application programme located on another network.

 The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving

information between computers over a network medium
into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems .

 This separation into smaller more manageable functions is

known as layering.
 OSI Model
Data unit Layer Function
7.Application Network process to application
Data representation, encryption and
Data 6. Presentation
Host decryption
layers 5. Session Interhost communication
End-to-end connections and
Segments 4.Transport
reliability, Flow control
Path determination and logical
Packet 3. Network
addressing
Media
Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
layers
Bit 1. Physical Media, signal and binary transmission

Going from layer 1 to 7: Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away

Going from layer 7 to 1: All People Seem To Need Data Processing

5
 The OSI Reference Model is composed of seven layers, each specifying
particular network functions.

 The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers

reduces complexity.

 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol

specification.

 Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on

other computers.

 The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2,
and 1) are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the
network.

 The upper 3 layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session—
Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.

 Data is Encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves

down the layers before network transit.
 Helps users understand the big picture of networking

 Helps users understand how hardware and software

elements function together

 Makes troubleshooting easier by separating networks into

manageable pieces

 Defines terms that networking professionals can use to

compare basic functional relationships on different networks

 Helps users understand new technologies as they are

developed

 Aids in interpreting vendor explanations of product

functionality
Each layer in the sending device adds its own information
to the message it receives from the layer just above it and
passes the whole package to the layer just below it.
 This layer is what the user sees, in terms of loading an application (such as Web browser
or e-mail); that is, this application layer is the data the user views while using these
applications.
 It provides services to programs that want to use the network
 The application layer is the OSI layer that is closest to the user.
 Enables the user to access the network.
 Provides user interface
 Application layer protocols are used to exchange data between programs running on
the source and destination hosts.
 There are many Application layer protocols and new protocols are always being
developed.
 Mail, ftp, telnet, DNS, NIS, NFS are example applications.
Examples of application layer functionality include:
› • Support for file transfers
› • Ability to print on a network
› • Electronic mail
› • Electronic messaging
› • Browsing the World Wide Web
› • Network virtual terminal
 The primary goal of this layer is to take care of the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between two communicating systems.
 Presentation layer takes care that the data is sent in such a way that the receiver
will understand the information (data) and will be able to use the data.
 Languages (syntax) can be different of the two communicating systems. Under
this condition presentation layer plays a role translator.
 For example, a sending computer after receiving data from the application layer
will need to convert such data from the receiving format(eg ASCII) to a format
understood and accepted by other layers of the OSI model to ensure smooth file
transfer.
 Data formats include postscript, ASCII, or BINARY such as EBCDIC
Main Functions:
• Encryption and decryption
• Compression and expansion of a message
• Content translation
• System-specific translation
Functionality Includes
 Translation : Before being transmitted, information in the form of characters and
numbers should be changed to bit streams. The presentation layer is responsible for
interoperability between encoding methods as different computers use different
encoding methods. It translates data between the formats the network requires and
the format the computer.

 Encryption : It carries out encryption or protection at the transmitter and decryption

at the receiver. This can be achieved by cryptography. Cryptography is a data
security science achieved by hiding information/data. encryption- the process of
scrambling plaintext-e.g. everyday sentences and messages into ciphertext -a
language understood by the machine or translator at the receiving end which is
then interpreted into plaintext again i.e. decryption.

 Compression : It carries out data compression to reduce the bandwidth of the data
to be transmitted. The primary role of Data compression is to reduce the number of
bits to be 0transmitted. It is important in transmitting multimedia such as audio,
video, text etc.
 As the name of the Session layer implies, functions at this layer create and
maintain dialogs between source and destination applications.

 The Session layer handles the exchange of information to initiate dialogs, keep
them active, and to restart sessions that are disrupted or idle for a long period of
time.

 Establishes, maintains and ends sessions across the network

 Provides synchronization services by planning check points in the data stream

 If session fails, only data after the most recent checkpoint need be transmitted

 Manages who can transmit data at a certain time and for how long
 It is the lowest of the three upper layers, which collectively are concerned mainly with
software application issues and not with the details of network and internet implementation.
Session layer functionality includes:
• Virtual connection between application entities
• Synchronization of data flow
• Creation of dialog units
• Acknowledgements of data received during a session
• Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device

 Dialog Control : This layer allows two systems to start communication with
each other in half-duplex or full-duplex.

 Synchronization : This layer allows a process to add checkpoints which

are considered as synchronization points into stream of data. Example: If
a system is sending a file of 800 pages, adding checkpoints after every
50 pages is recommended. This ensures that 50 page unit is successfully
received and acknowledged. This is beneficial at the time of crash as if
a crash happens at page number 110; there is no need to retransmit 1
to100 pages.
 Transport layer breaks the message (data) into small units so that they are handled
more efficiently by the network layer and ensures that message arrives in order by
checking error and flow control.

 Divides streams of data into chucks or packets (Fragmentation)

 Reassembles the message from packets

 Provide error-checking to guarantee error- free data delivery, with no losses or

duplications

 Provides acknowledgment of successful transmissions

 Requests retransmission if some packets don’t arrive error-free

 Provides flow control and error-handling

 Port Addressing

 Layer 4 protocols include TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and UDP (User Datagram
Protocol).
FUNCTIONS OF TRANSPORT LAYER:

 Service Point Addressing : Transport Layer header includes service point address which is port
address. This layer gets the message to the correct process on the computer unlike Network Layer,
which gets each packet to the correct computer.

 Segmentation and Reassembling : A message is divided into segments; each segment contains
sequence number, which enables this layer in reassembling the message. Message is reassembled
correctly upon arrival at the destination and replaces packets which were lost in transmission.

 Connection Control : It includes 2 types :

› Connectionless Transport Layer : Each segment is considered as an independent packet and delivered to the
transport layer at the destination machine.

› Connection Oriented Transport Layer : Before delivering packets, connection is made with transport layer at
the destination machine.

 Flow Control : In this layer, flow control is performed end to end.

 Error Control : Error Control is performed end to end in this layer to ensure that the complete
message arrives at the receiving transport layer without any error. Error Correction is done through
retransmission.
 Defines end-to-end delivery of packets.

 The main aim of this layer is to deliver packets from source to destination across multiple links
(networks).

 If two computers (system) are connected on the same link then there is no need for a network
layer.

 It routes the signal through different channels to the other end and acts as a network controller.

 It also divides the outgoing messages into packets and to assemble incoming packets into
messages for higher levels.

 It translates logical network address into physical address. Concerned with circuit, message or
packet switching.

 Routers and gateways operate in the network layer. Mechanism is provided by Network Layer
for routing the packets to final destination.

 Connection services are provided including network layer flow control, network layer error
control and packet sequence control.

 Breaks larger packets into small packets.

 Examples :- IP, IPX, OSPF, RIP Protocols

 Allows a device to access the network to send and receive messages

 Offers a physical address so a device’s data can be sent on the network

 Works with a device’s networking software when sending and receiving

messages

 Provides error-detection capability LAN

 Works in Common networking components that function at layer 2

include:
 Network interface cards

 Ethernet and Token Ring Switches

 Bridges
 Allows a device to access the network to send and receive messages

 Offers a physical address so a device’s data can be sent on the network

 Works with a device’s networking software when sending and receiving

messages

 Provides error-detection capability LAN

 Works in Common networking components that function at layer 2

include:
 Network interface cards

 Ethernet and Token Ring Switches

 Bridges
Other responsibilities of the data link layer include the following:
 Framing. The data link layer divides the stream of bits received from the
network layer into manageable data units called frames.

 Physical addressing. If frames are to be distributed to different systems on the

network, the data link layer adds a header to the frame to define the sender
and/or receiver of the frame. If the frame is intended for a system outside the
sender's network, the receiver address is the address of the device that connects
the network to the next one.

 Flow control. If the rate at which the data are absorbed by the receiver is less
than the rate at which data are produced in the sender, the data link layer
imposes a flow control mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.

 Error control. The data link layer adds reliability to the physical layer by
adding mechanisms to detect and retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses
a mechanism to recognize duplicate frames
 Access control. When two or more devices are connected to the same link, data
link layer protocols are necessary to determine which device has control over
the link at any given time.
 The physical layer deals with the physical characteristics of
the transmission medium.
 The physical layer coordinates the functions required to
carry a bit stream over a physical medium.
 It defines the electrical, mechanical, procedural, and
functional specifications for activating, maintaining, and
deactivating the physical link between end systems.
 Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage
changes, physical data rates, maximum transmission
distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes
are defined by physical layer specifications.
 Components of the physical layer include:
• Cabling system components
• Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces
• Connector design and pin assignments
• Hub, repeater, and patch panel specifications
• Wireless system components
• Network Interface Card (NIC)
 There was no standard for networks in the early days and as a result it
was difficult for networks to communicate with each other.
 The International Organisation for Standardisation (ISO) recognised this.
and researched various network schemes, and in 1984 introduced the
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model.
 The OSI reference model has standards which ensure vendors greater
compatibility and interoperability between various types of network
technologies.
 The OSI reference model organizes network functions into seven
numbered layers.
 Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol
specification and communicates with the same layer’s software or
hardware on other computers.
 Layers 1-4 are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through
the network and Layers 5-7 are concerned with services to the
applications.
 When you send an email, or click on a
web page in a browser, a series of
events must occur before any
information leaves your computer. Many
different types of software are involved
in something as simple as sending an
email. For example:
 Your email program must ask you to provide some necessary
information, such as your own name and email address, the
name and email address of the person you are sending the
email to, and the subject line and body of the email itself, which
contains your message.

 The data generated by your email program must then be put in

some standard format, which many different types of machines
can understand. Your email will go through several switches,
routers, gateways and other machines on the internet before it
reaches its destination. You might be running Windows on your
machine, but these other machines that route your email to its
destination are probably running their own proprietary operating
systems. The recipient of your email might be using a computer
with Mac OS or Linux. For these reasons, the email data
generated by your email program must be converted to some
neutral format that is understood by all the machines that will
handle it along the way.
 The data must be broken down into smaller chunks. Your 10
megabyte email cannot be transmitted as a single file. It has to
be broken up (sometimes into hundreds, thousands, or even
millions of chunks, depending on size) before it can be
transmitted. These chunks are called "packets".

 Each packet must contain some basic information, which is

added to it by software on your computer. This information
would include the name and internet addresses of the source
and recipient. In addition, it also includes extra information
which is used for error-checking. Transmission across the internet
is a very chancy business. Some packets are lost in transit - they
never reach their destination. Others may reach their destination
but are garbled in transit. For this reason, there must be some
way to verify the integrity of a packet at the other end. This is
usually done through extra information appended to the
packet, and there is software on your computer that generates
this extra error checking information.
 In a similar manner, your computer must verify that each packet reaches its
destination. It does this by talking to the computer at the other end, in effect
carrying out a conversation with it. Each time a packet fails to show up at the
other end, or shows up garbled, the computer at the other end tells your
computer to re-transmit it.

 If you are sending your data over a secure connection (for example, clicking
a web page protected by SSL encryption, such as your bank's web pages),
then your data also needs to be encrypted before it can be sent. This is also
done by software on your computer.

 Finally, these packets must be converted to electrical signals, which can

then be transmitted to the next computer in line. Remember, if you send an
email or click on a web page, you are not really talking to the computer at
the other end. You are going through a whole relay of switches and other
devices between you and the computer at the other end. There might be 20
or 30 such devices in between, starting with your own router or cable
modem. Since the devices between you and the end computer are simply
relays, they don't actually read each data packet completely. But they do
read the addresses to make sure they forward them in the proper direction
to reach the recipient at the other end. Each relay must also do error
checking, to make sure that no errors appear at any stage.
 As you can see, the simple process of sending an email is actually
quite complex, and involves much more software than just your
email application or web browser. The operating system itself
(Windows, Linux, Mac OS) provides much of the functionality
needed to perform some of the tasks listed above.
 The TCPIIP protocol suite was developed prior to the OSI model.
 Layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly match those in the
OSI model.
 The original TCP/IP protocol suite was defined as having four layers:
› HOST-TO-NETWORK
› INTERNET,
› TRANSPORT,
› APPLICATION.
 When TCP/IP is compared to OSI,
› HOST-TO-NETWORK LAYER =PHYSICAL + DATA LINK LAYERS
› INTERNET LAYER =NETWORK LAYER
› TRANSPORT LAYER = TRANSPORT LAYER.
› APPLICATION LAYER =SESSION + PRESENTATION + APPLICATION LAYERS
 we assume that the TCPIIP protocol suite is made of
five layers:
› PHYSICAL,
› DATA LINK,
› NETWORK,
› TRANSPORT, AND
› APPLICATION LAYER.
 The first four layers provide physical standards, network
interfaces, internetworking, and transport functions that
correspond to the first four layers of the OSI model.

 The three topmost layers in the OSI model are represented in

TCP/IP by a single layer called the application layer
TCP/IP and OSI model
• TCP/IP is a hierarchical protocol
• The term hierarchical
• means that each upper-level protocol is supported
by one or more lower-level protocols

• TCP/IP protocol suite contain independent protocols

• Can be mixed depending on the needs of the system
Layer 1: Physical and Datalink Layer
•Protocols in the Physical layer specify details about the
underlying transmission medium and the associated
hardware. All specifications related to electrical properties,
radio frequencies, and signals belong in layer1.

•It supports all the standard and proprietary protocols. A

network in a TCPIIP internetwork
can be a local-area network or a wide-area network.
Layer 2: Network Layer
•Protocols in the Network Interface layer specify details about
communication between higher layers of protocols, which are usually
implemented in software, and the underlying network, which is
implemented in hardware. Specifications about network addresses and
the maximum packet size that a network can support, protocols used to
access the underlying medium, and hardware addressing belong in
layer 2.

•TCP/IP supports
the Internetworking Protocol. IP, in turn, uses four supporting
protocols: ARP,RARP, ICMP, and IGMP.0
  It Associates a logical address with a physical address.
 Every device (NIC) has physical address
 ARP is used to find the physical address of the node
when its Internet address is known.

(RARP)Reverse Address Resolution

Protocol
• The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
allows a host to discover its Internet address when it
knows only its physical address.
  a mechanism used by hosts and gateways to send
notification of datagram problems back to the
sender.
 ICMP sends query and error reporting messages.

(IGMP) Internet Group Message Protocol

• The Internet Group Message Protocol (IGMP) is used

to facilitate the simultaneous transmission of a
message to a group of recipients.
 Layer 3: Transport
 Protocols in the Transport layer provide for
communication from an application program on
one computer to an application program on
another.
 Specifications that control the maximum rate a
receiver can accept data, mechanisms to avoid
network congestion,
 and techniques to insure that all data is received in
the correct order belong to layer 4.
 UDP and TCP are transport level protocols
 A new transport layer protocol, SCTP for new
applications
 Layer 4: Application
 Protocols in the top layer of the TCP/IP stack specify
how a pair of applications interact when they
communicate.
 Protocols of this layer specify details about the
format and meaning of messages that applications
can exchange as well as procedures to be followed
during communication.
 Specifications for email exchange, file transfer, web
 browsing, telephone services, and video
teleconferencing all belong to this layer.
 Four levels of addresses are used in an
internet employing the TCP/IP protocols:
physical, logical, port, and specific.