Module 2

ISSUES IN CARIBBEAN DEVELOPMENT – PATRICIA

CLAXTON
WHAT IS DEVELOPMENT
ABOUT?
Development is about growth. It is both a process and a desired state.
Several definitions exist and each has its own indicators by which it is
measured. Phrases that have been coined to describe countries include:
developed, developing, undeveloped, under-developed, less-developed
etc.

There are also schools of thought challenging the world view’s “myth of
development” essentially postulating that the ideology subscribes to a
biased, Western model which puts the industrialized nations at the top
of the proverbial pyramid with ‘Third World’ countries having no hope of
ever becoming ‘developed’.
DEFINITIONS OF
DEVELOPMENT

Human development is defined as the process of enlarging people's

freedoms and opportunities and improving their well-being. Human
development is about the real freedom ordinary people have to decide
who to be, what to do, and how to live. The human development
concept was developed by economist Mahbub ul Haq

Economic Development – A sustained increase in the value of goods and

services produced by a country.
Sustainable Development – Development that meets the present needs
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their
own needs. Thus economic as well as social factors are considered
INDICATORS AND FACTORS OF
DEVELOPMENT
GDP
Stands for Gross Domestic Product
An estimated value of the total worth
of a country’s production and services,
Definition within its boundary, by its nationals and
foreigners, calculated over the course
on one year.
GDP = consumption + investment +
Formula for Calculation (government spending) + (exports −
imports).
Uses Business, Economic Forecasting.
Application (Context in which these To see the strength of a country’s local
terms are used) economy.
Total value of products & Services
Layman Usage produced within the territorial
boundary of a country.
GNP
Gross National Product
An estimated value of the total worth
of production and services, by citizens
of a country, on its land or on foreign
land, calculated over the course on one
year.
GNP = GDP + NR (Net income inflow
from assets abroad or Net Income
Receipts) - NP (Net payment outflow to
foreign assets).
Business, Economic Forecasting.
To see how the nationals of a country
are doing economically.
Total value of Goods and Services
produced by all nationals of a country
(whether within or outside the
country).
Indicators… Per Capita –World
Bank
GDP - per capita (PPP): $31, 967.2 (2014 est.) – T&T
$16, 057.8 (2014 est.) - Barbados
$8, 875.5 (2014 est.) - Jamaica
note: data are in 2012 US dollars
Definition: This entry shows GDP on a purchasing power
parity basis divided by population as of 1 July for the
same year.
This measure is crucial in estimating the living standards
of a country as it calculates how much income is
potentially available to each person
INDICATORS – Gini
Coefficient
Gini index measures the extent to which the distribution of income or
consumption expenditure among individuals or households within an
economy deviates from a perfectly equal distribution. A Lorenz curve
plots the cumulative percentages of total income received against the
cumulative number of recipients, starting with the poorest individual or
household. The Gini index measures the area between the Lorenz curve
and a hypothetical line of absolute equality, expressed as a percentage
of the maximum area under the line. Thus a Gini index of 0 represents
perfect equality, while an index of 100 implies perfect inequality.
Indicators…
The Human Development Index (HDI) is a composite
statistic of life expectancy, education, and income indices
used to rank countries into four tiers of human
development. It was created by a Pakistani economist
Mahbub ul Haq and Indian economist Amartya Sen in 1990
and was published by the United Nations Development
Programme.
Internet penetration
Internet penetration would allow for the sharing of knowledge as
well as it would open up communication for business in the fields of
e-commerce and advertising to a global market. Social and human
development is also more accessible as this sharing of knowledge
also enhances people’s ability to make informed choices and to find
associations and support for different issues in the virtual space.
Indicators (cont’d) -
Productivity
This is a measure of efficiency of the economic activity. Many
economists have attempted to measure the productivity of key
industries such as tourism and agriculture and have found that these
ventures require heavy capital input that often exceeds output/profit
that is ultimately gained from the investment.
Indicators – Modern
Technology
This is the view that capital intensive industries that use a
lot of machinery are better than labour intensive industries.
The term ‘appropriate technology’ is sometimes substituted
as it indicates the sensitivity to the fact that the old model
of ‘developed’ countries will not be applicable in the 21st
century. No longer are cheap raw materials and labour nor
ready markets available as was the case during the colonial
era when the ‘developed’ countries were on their growth
path.
Indicators – Good governance
Good governance as defined by the UN includes the following seven
aspects: participatory, consensus oriented, accountable, transparent,
responsive, effective and efficient, equitable and inclusive and [which
should follow] the rule of law.
It also assumes that corruption is minimised and the views of
minorities and the most vulnerable are taken in account in decision-
making and that the present and future needs of society are considered
at all times.
FACTORS (cont’d)
Environmental factors – In the Caribbean, environmental hazards are
inevitable, however, legislation such as strict building codes can help to
mitigate the effects of such hazards. Inequalities in the society can lead to
poorer groups being more vulnerable. Environmental hazards are also
created by big businesses using shortcuts to make more money and by
poorer classes who settle on hill slopes etc. In addition there still persists a
lackadaisical attitude by some towards ecological disasters," God is s Trini”
 THE TOURISM FACTOR
The tourism industry often referred to as the invisible trade is the biggest
industry in the world today and many Caribbean countries are seeking to
capitalise on its benefits especially in light of the failure agricultural
industries and the absence of manufacturing industries in most islands.
However it is by nature an industry that encourages dependency. From
the traditional sun, sea and sand, the tourism product as determined by
the visitors have expanded to include ecotourism, adventure tourism,
sports tourism, enclave tourism, health tourism, festival tourism and
cruise ship tourism.
CONTRIBUTION OF TOURISM
TO THE REGION
Increased GDP for countries
Economic diversification
Creation of employment
Development of niche markets
Fosters preservation of culture and the environment
CHALLENGES FACED BY
TOURISM
Repatriation of foreign dollars in all-inclusive hotels
Environmental degradation
Cultural erasure
Overdependence of economies on such a fragile and transient industry
(new monoculture)
Social problems – trafficking of drugs, humans ammo.;
- rise in STDs and other communicable diseases
Loss of locally owned land
GLOBALISATION AND
DEVELOPMENT

Globalisation is the process of increasing the connectivity and

interdependence of the world’s markets and businesses so that they
function as one global market.
The term can also refer to the transnational circulation of ideas,
languages and popular culture without the restriction of nation-state
borders.
STAGES OF GLOBALIZATION
1.Internationalization of economic institutions in Europe and North
America
2.Reduction in transport costs by improvements in shipping and railways
before WWII
3.After WWII the process continued as institutions such as the UN,
World Bank, IMF and GATT stabilized currencies, increasing trade and
production
4.The minimizing of controls continued even after the 1970s oil crisis
5.The rise of TNCs or MNCs accelerated free trade and bolstered
international capital
FACILITATORS OF
GLOBALISATION (TWWIT)

IMF (International Monetary Fund) – est. in 1945 to help in the recovery of

post –war Europe. Today it also lends funds to other nations under
conditions and advises on macroeconomic policy (currency devaluations
etc.)

World Bank (Formerly International Bank for Reconstruction and

Development) – est. around the same time of the IMF with a similar
philosophy. However while the IMF was concerned with macro issues the
WB deals with specific projects lending. The emphasis is essentially
structural adjustments within the economic philosophy of liberalisation of
trade practices. This institution is US led and controlled.
FACILITATORS… (cont’d)
WTO (World Trade Organization) – formerly GATT(General Agreements
on Tariffs and Trade) was founded in 1947 in Geneva, Switzerland. Its
main focus is the promotion of free trade by encouraging compliance of
trade agreements, lowering barriers to trade and focusing on tariffs.
Unlike the IMF and WB its clear mandate focuses on globalization rather
that internationalization.
TNCs (Transnational Corporations) - Essentially a TNC pulls together the
factors of finance, technology, raw material supplies, manufacturing,
distribution and, marketing in one privately owned organization. This
entity is usually controlled in one country but draws upon the resources
in many other countries. Examples include Pepsi, Courts, Shell and
Holiday Inn.
CHARACTERISTICS OF
GLOBALISATION (SCARED)
These can be summarized in the acronym, SCARED
1.Submission to an economic model
2.Constriction of capital flow
3.Access to more markets
4.Removal of preferential trade
5.Erasure and hybridization of culture
6.Deepening of social inequality
IMPACTS AND RESPONSES TO
GLOBALISATION
Industry and commerce
Distributional sector
Labour
Technology
Ideology
Communication
Organization
Finance
IMPACTS AND RESPONSES…
Distributional sector -Businesses have been forced to expand their
choices and lower prices in the face of competition. Others have had to
merge an form conglomerates; supermarkets have evolved into
megamarkets e.g. Tru Valu
Industry and commerce – Business have had to adjust their outputs and
level of technology to meet a global market.
Labour – labour has become more global since one’s skills can be easily
transferred within the human resource of MNCs. For example several
engineers, teachers nurses etc. have found well paying jobs in N
America, Africa and the Middle East. Training has also become global
with distance learning.
IMPACTS cont’d…
Technology – the use of ICTs has accelerated especially within the last
ten years, technology has kept pace with the ever expanding markets in
an ever-shrinking world. Knowledge sharing has made processes more
efficient in domestic, economic and political circles. Interestingly many
government ministries have struggled to keep up.
Ideology – the expansion of the markets of ideas have had some
positive and negative consequences. Examples of ideologies are trade
liberalisation, protectionism, fundamentalism etc.
IMPACTS…
Communication – By satellite television and the internet the whole
world is reachable. World cup football is watched while in progress by a
least a fifth of the world’s population.
GLOBALISATION VS
REGIONALISM

The Integration Movement:

The recognition that the peoples of the English-speaking Caribbean
share a common identity, even with diversity has prompted persistent
efforts at regional integration. However, reluctance among territories
stem from feelings that cooperation may involve losing one’s national
identity. Thus development efforts in the Caribbean operate within a
context characterized by this tension between regionalism and
globalisation.
THE INTEGRATION
MOVEMENT
1.The West Indies Federation (1958-1962)
- establishment of a federal state à la U.S.A
2. CARICOM – Caribbean Common Market (1973)
-Free trade area with a common external tariff
3. OECS – Organization of Eastern Caribbean States (1981)
-A common currency, bank, judicial system and so on but not a unitary
state
4. ACS – Association of Caribbean States (1994)– the 4th largest trading
bloc in the world comprising of the Caribbean region and Central and
South America.
INTEGRATION CONT’D
5. Free Trade of the Americas (FTAA) – This is proposed agreement to
eliminate or reduce trade barriers among all nations of the Western
Hemisphere with the exception of Cuba
6. CSME (1989) – Caribbean Single Market and Economy
This body concerns itself with the removal of barriers to trade and travel
OTHER FACILITATORS OF
REGIONALISM
University of the West Indies(UWI)1949
Caribbean Examinations Council(CXC)1972
West Indies Cricket Board(WICB)1928
Caribbean Tourism Organisation(CTO)
Regional Security System(RSS)
SPORT AND DEVELOPMENT

Sport – structured physical activities that have a history, precise rules

and also refers to more casual activities such as aerobics or even
walking.
SPORT cont’d
Benefits –
Health and fitness
Character building
Intellectual development – scholarships
Generation of income and employment
Development of a Caribbean identity(cricket)
Establishment of a Caribbean presence on the world scene
CHALLENGES TO SPORT
DEVELOPMENT
Raw talent is not enough in an extremely competitive environment
where sport is a science and heavy capital investment is needed to
adequately prepare for competition
A policy for sport development with the appropriate financial backing is
needed however this competes with more urgent needs in security and
education, for example
Sport is still seen by many as only a recreational activity and not as a
meaningful contributor to human development.
INTELLECTUAL TRADITIONS
An ideology refers to the ideas and manner of
thinking of a group, social class or individual.
It also refers to a system of ideas or ideals,
especially one that forms the basis of economic or
political policy.
INTELLECTUAL TRADITIONS
INFLUENCING THE CARIBBEAN
Pan Africanism
Negritude
Industrialization by Invitation
Marxism and neo-Marxism
Feminism
Indo-Caribbean thought
Indigenous perspectives
 PAN AFRICANISM
MARCUS GARVEY

Pan Africanism is a socio-political worldview, philosophy and movement

which seeks to unify native Africans and those of African heritage into
the ‘global African community’. It calls for a politically and economically
united Africa or unity of African people. It also seeks to educate Africans
about their glorious history, common struggles as well as to advocate for
equal rights for all.
The Negritude Movement
This movement involved the French colonies of Africa and the Caribbean
which called on all people of African origin to celebrate their blackness.
Started by intellectuals in Paris who were opposed to a new French
policy of total assimilation of all colonies. Its main proponents included
Matinicans , Aime Cesaire and Leopold Senghor was was president of
Senegal from 1960 to 1980. Much disparity in views persisted in how and
by what means liberation should come about. However there exists a
plethora of writings in philosophy, politics, history and art that
celebrates this popular movement.
The Black Power Movement
By the 1960s the struggle for uplifting African peoples was taken up in the
USA by Martin Luther King Jr whose peaceful movement for equality was
thwarted by his assassination in 1966 .
Following his demise the Black Power movement emerged as a more radical
force to combat white supremacy. Some of it’s famous leaders had
Caribbean roots, such as Malcolm X form the Nation of Islam and Kwame
Toure (Stokely Carmichael)
The Marxist influence of the movement also attracted trade unionists who
incorporated its philosophy into their struggles for social justice. In 1970 in
Trinidad , A young Lieutenant, Raffique Shah led an armed rebellion against
the government with a small battalion of soldiers.
This was a culmination of months of protests form trade union leaders for
better working conditions, civil society groups for social justice and political
movements for political rights and freedoms.
Industrialisation by Invitation
Operation Bootstrap is the popular name for this concept which was
first initiated by Puerto Rico after WWII
It would later be modified by Sir Arthur Lewis of St. Lucia to become the
model for the new economic model of the British colonies
It’s main characteristics included heavy foreign direct investment, tax
holidays and large scale production geared to a foreign market; cheap
local labour and adequate infrastructure to set up industrial estates.
Marxism and Neo-Marxism
Marxism developed by Karl Marx put forward a theory of development
that espoused ideas of empowering the majority through joint
ownership of the means of production.
It saw capitalism as an unjust system of distribution of resources which
would eventually fall – often by violent means to usher in a new order.
Neo- Marxists fused the ideas of Marxism within the context of their
respective societies. These are often referred to as socialist states which
can be seen as a stage in communism (a utopian ideal, where the state
is no longer relevant in the society)
Form the original implementers of Marxism such as Lenin(Russia) to
Caribbean leaders and thinkers such as C.L.R. James, Cheddi Jagan and
Michael Manley these ideas in its many versions have greatly influenced
intellectual thought in the region.
Caribbean Feminism
Feminism involves the struggle for equal rights for women in the
society.
CAFRA – Caribbean Association for Feminist Research and Action is the
main body advocating for women’s rights in the Caribbean
Through various media the message has been slowly getting out , e.g.
through literary works such as ‘Crick Crack Monkey’ by Merle Hodge, in
politics through Eugenia Charles (Dominica), in law through Lynette
Seebarran Suite and in education Patricia Mohammed.
One of the greatest challenges for feminist awakening is that most of
these advocates are academics thus women at the lower social levels
are still socialized in a male dominated manner.
Indo-Caribbean thought
Much effort has been made by immigrants from India and their
descendants to preserve their religion, culture and identity through cultural
retentions and works of literature and music and through political
associations
Trinidad, Guyana and Suriname have the largest East Indians and in these
territories one can observe the perpetuation of Islam and Hinduism, the
celebration of Eid and Divali, the infusion of Indian culinary arts dress,
language and music into local culture.
Even though many practices persist, there has been some degree of
assimilation and hybridisation of culture as seen for example in the growing
number of mixed marriages, and the emerging of ‘cross-over’ music such as
chutney soca in Trinidad.
Some influential intellectuals include Samuel Selvon (Guyana) and V.S.
Naipaul (Trinidad) who wrote about the struggles of Indians as a minority
group in the Caribbean.
Indigenous perspectives
Several intellectual works by West Indian historians have sought to
debunk certain myths about the indigenous population – that they were
extremely naïve and docile(Arawaks) or war-like(Caribs) or that they
have been completely wiped out with the remaining few not of ‘pure’
Amerindian ancestry, or that they have no history and thus have had
little effect on Caribbean history, society and culture.
In Guyana, Dominica and Belize there have been struggles to correct
injustices against Amerindians with reference to land rights, social
economic and political marginalisation as well as a thrust to link to
indigenous people in the region and around the world to strengthen
their legacy.
 ROLES AND FUNCTIONS OF THE
MASS MEDIA
The media is a main conduit of information around the world. It
collectively refers to the collection and transmission of data through
magazines, phono-recordings, films, print and all electronic media.
The global knowledge and technological development has been
facilitated by the mass media, especially the electronic media at the
end of the twentieth century. The last decade is often referred to as the
information age.
THE MEDIA cont’d
The media has three main functions
1.To inform
2.To entertain
3.To raise societal awareness
 TO INFORM

For people to make informed choices adequate information needs to reach people
in a timely manner. These choices may range from purchasing a product, planning a
project, preserving the environment, protecting oneself from hazards as well as
selecting people to positions of leadership. However the information that
ultimately reaches the public is a function of several factors including:
•Government policies concerning a free press
•Big business interests
•Mode of news delivery (news for entertainment etc.)
•The impact of foreign press and cultural imperialism
ENTERTAINMENT
Besides the obvious feeling of well being that comes from
entertainment, many interest groups and governments have found that
entertainment can serve as a medium to transmit educational messages
to a more receptive audience
There also have been attempts to showcase local talent, however
artistes seldom receive recognition and royalties for their work. This is
one of the obstacles to a thriving entertainment industry
MEDIA AND NATIONAL
IDENTITY
In the past, countries such as Antigua and Barbuda and Cuba,
government owned almost all the media
In other territories such as Trinidad and Tobago there are laws
facilitating a mandatory space and time for government programming
CANA – Caribbean News Agency and CBU – Caribbean Broadcasting
Union have developed programmes that inform about issues in several
territories. Unfortunately, these instruments have not been fully utilized
to achieve regional unity. Moreover the majority of their broadcast now
focuses on politics, sport and entertainment at the expense of other
issues such as the economy, health and security.
The Jamaica Cultural Development commission highlights cultural
activities of the country through radio and television
MEDIA AND CULTURAL
IMPERIALISM

With the advent of cable television, the region has been awashed with
US culture( speech, dress, values etc.)
We have absorbed their political views, stereotypes, dreams and
aspirations. This has been a driving force behind the changing roles of
men and women and the awareness of children. Some of these changes
are positive and some are negative.
Observation of media rights
and privileges
For the media to perform their tasks effectively certain rights must be
observed
Right to security of person
Freedom to access information (Freedom of Information Act)
Equitable treatment of media organisations by public figures
Freedom of movement through countries and regions(CSME)
Media and Public Health
Raises awareness and facilitates networking and social support
Creates climate of opinion for action
Provides advice for healthy living
Changes attitudes by providing examples and role models
Promoting specific products, events opportunities
Broadcasting achievements and rewarding action
Raises awareness and action for HIV/AIDS epidemic on individual,
national and regional level
Freedom of the Press and
Development
A properly functioning media should be able to increase the
accountability of both big businesses and government through
monitoring and reputational penalties while allowing customers to make
more informed decisions.
Factors influencing the independence of the media include
Level of democracy
Ownership
Culture and expectations
The legal system
Availability of trained personnel
Democracy
In a democratic society it follows there should be a free press
Ownership
Government owned media tends to be of lesser quality, little
investigative work and laden with government propaganda
When there is little competition or a monopoly, again the owners and
advertisers who sponsor programs gain control over the information
disseminated, thus lack of local content when there is no sponsorship.
There is also the risk of the erosion of democracy.
Culture and expectations
Some countries have never been able to experience the usefulness of
an effective and free media thus efforts must be made to sensitise
people about the power of information to improve their daily lot
The legal system
Constitution guarantees the right of freedom of the press
The issue of libel against persons and institutions which abuse this
freedom
Freedom of Information Act allows average citizen to ask questions of
authorities in seeking justice
Laws governing granting of licenses, distribution of information and
censorship (criminalizing of certain words and acts in public, ostensibly
to stabilize society)
Availability of trained
personnel
CARIMAC - Caribbean Institute of Mass Communications
Is the major regional institution for training media professionals.
However several professionals in the region have been trained in the US
and the UK and this affects the way news is conceived, packaged and
distributed vis a vis, Facebook, Twitter, YouTube etc.(e.g. U-report on
TV6)
SOCIAL JUSTICE ISSUES IN THE
CARIBBEAN
Gender equality
Class/race discrimination
Minority rights
Indigenous people
Disabled/elderly
Street people/AIDS victims
Rights of the child
ISSUES IN SOCIAL JUSTICE
Rights for all versus fairness to all (e.g. aboriginal lands)
The need for welfare for the vulnerable in society(distributive justice)
Responsibilities- to produce while demanding service
Natural rights(right to life and liberty) versus the social contract to
respect the rights of others
Prejudices(attitudes), stereotype(set of ideas typifying a group),
discrimination(open acts against a group)
The concept of the ‘Other’ as opposed to ‘normal’ people(meaning
oneself)
GENDER

For many years, women in the Caribbean were not given equal
opportunities in the pursuit of employment or education. During the last
two decades of the twentieth century, women in the Caribbean
experienced significant increases in opportunities. Women are using
their education to move into many management positions, traditionally
dominated by men. Issues still arise with reference to equal pay and
promotion
UNEQUAL PAY FOR EQUAL
WORK
GENDER DISCRIMINATION
In a research paper published by Bellony et al(2010), and funded by the
Inter-American Development Bank (IDB) it was found that in Barbados
males earned an average 8 -17 per cent more than females and in
Jamaica an astounding 14 -27 per cent more for the same work!
CLASS DISCRIMINATION
Even though independence and democracy have levelled the playing
field somewhat there is still much to be done in creating equality of
opportunities.
There are cases in the Caribbean where political tribalism leads to
unequal opportunities since employment, education and justice are
afforded based on political allegiance. (See issues relating to awarding
of contracts, appointments to state boards, and in Trinidad - the
administration pre-2010: scholarships to supporters and family)
People of inner-city and rural areas are often discriminated against in
terms of opportunities and justice, while upper classes who engage in
white-collar crime are often dealt with leniently. (See Brad Boyce trial)
This creates feelings of disenfranchisement which may lead to social
unrest.
RACE DISCRIMINATION

Even though institutional racism no longer exists, there still remains a

sort of pigmentocracy – where varying skin tones and physical features
are ranked in terms of perceived superiority. There have been stark
instances of this practice of discrimination especially with reference to
club memberships, job opportunities and access to social events.
MINORITIES

Though small in number, minority groups must have equal

opportunities to participate in society. The existence of aboriginal
peoples in at least five Caricom countries (Belize, Dominica, Guyana, St.
Vincent and the Grenadines and Trinidad and Tobago) brings into focus
the lack of social equity and social justice for these minority groups. Any
policy for these people must take certain factors into consideration such
as land rights and the need to preserve their relationship with their
natural environment, the need to preserve their native language and
access to social service and even a political voice.(See Belize land rights
issue)
THE DISABLED
Unlike in the past where they were not able to live independently,
disabled people are now accessing premises and thus educational and
job opportunities. Ministries of social development in several territories
are working towards making this group of people more productive
members of society and not just dependent on welfare rights.
Some credit should be given to NGOS such as the Barbados Council for
the Disabled who among other initiatives, launched Wheelchair Tennis
to the into the sporting arena as well as an awards system for facilities
that have upgraded to accommodate disabled people. (Note also,
George Daniel – Trinidad; DPI)
 AGEISM

These people must be protected from ageist practices some of which include:
Mandatory retirement at 60 -65 even though a person at that age may still be very
productive
Reluctance or refusal to hire people above a certain age
Insurance benefits may not be granted or premiums may increase when applying
after 35. Also most policies expire at age 60-70 at best
Less of the national budget is spent on geriatric services
It is noteworthy that several populations of the Caribbean including Trinidad and
Tobago now have an ageing population (2011 census)
AGEISM…
Elderly people are often left out of social events, such as companies’
family days since these are geared towards younger people
Media stereotypes such as ‘grouchy old man’ and ‘old maid’ are
perpetuated in movies and tv shows
Language associated with older people such as ‘elderly’ are often used
in medical literature to automatically indicate ‘sick and frail’
Jokes about the elderly often focus around the perception that they are
forgetful or deaf.
HIV/AIDS VICTIMS AND STREET
PEOPLE

Public campaigns and implementation of laws and policies have seen

the lot of these groups improve in the last decade of so. For AIDS
victims there is now legislation to protect them from unlawful dismissal
and discriminating hiring practices. There also have been programmes
geared toward rehabilitating street dwellers which includes the
provision of shelter, medical services and training programmes. One
must note that many of these programmes to help the vulnerable in
society are spearheaded by Non-Governmental Organisations(NGOs).