SUSTAINABLE ENERGY

Unit 2
Conventional Energy Sources
 Conventional energy resources

• At present most of power generation is done by the

conventional methods
• Fossil fuels is the important source
• It may include solid (coal, wood or any biomass), liquid
(LDO, furnace oil), gaseous (natural gas, bio gas, LPG)
fuel
• Sources for power generation are depleting in nature
• Thermal, Nuclear and Diesel power plant comes under
this category
• Efficiency for energy conversion is low
• Pollution caused by the plant is very high
• They are located far away from load centers
• Transmission and Distribution losses are more
 Comparison of various energy sources
Energy source Strength Weakness Opportunities Threat

Electrical  Direct Utilization  Supply fluctuation  Continuous  Should be converted to

 Easy transportation  Transmission & research to other forms of energy
 No pollution Distribution losses improve the leads to low 
 Possibility of storage  Cost is high efficiency  Continuous depletion of
 Versatile usage  Low power factor  Other forms of resources
energy resources  Frequent shutdown
 Stand alone
systems
Chemical  Direct conversion to  Pollution to the  Need not depend  Direct application is not
heat or electrical environment on grid possible
energy  Depletion of the  Decrease in market
 Higher potential source demand for the product
 Low cost  Reaction is difficult
 Waste heat recovery to control
 Difficult in
transportation
Nuclear  Low quantity of fuel  Hazardous  Improved  Handling of fuel and
 Efficiency is high radiation technology for disposal of wastes is a
 Availability of the fuel  High cost control fission major problem
 Maintenance  Safety
Hydro  Renewable  Nature dependent  Peak load  Construction of storage
 Flexibility  Initial cost is high  High continuous units
 Free of cost depletion of fossil  Priority
 Multiusage fuels 1. Power
2. Agricultural
 Non-Renewable Energy
Sources
• Conventional
– Petroleum
– Natural Gas
– Coal
– Nuclear
• Unconventional (examples)
– Oil Shale
– Natural gas hydrates in marine sediment
Disadvantages & Limitations Of Conventional
Energy
* Resources are limited and may not be able to meet
the increase future demand
* Emission of “Green house” gasses from thermal
power stations
* Submersion of low lying areas in Hydel power
* Consumption of fossil fuels towards transportation
of raw material i.e. coal for thermal power stations
* Centralised power generation results in high losses
in transmission & distribution
* De-forestation will have adverse effect on climate
change
Demand comparison of fuels
Fuels Calorific Value Cost in Rs

Wood 12 MJ/kg 0.4/kg

Charcoal 20 MJ/kg 4/kg

Coal 30 MJ/kg 3/kg

Kerosene 40 MJ/kg 19/lt

Petrol 47 MJ/kg 32/lt

Diesel 44 MJ/kg 20/lt

Furnace Oil 42 MJ/kg 10/lt

LPG 80 MJ/kg 19/kg

Biogas 25 MJ/m3 0.50/m3

Electricity 3.6 MJ/unit 3/unit

 Demand comparison based on calorific value
(100% efficiency)
Fuel Wood Char Coal Kerosene Petrol Diesel Furnace LPG Biogas Electricity
(kg) Coal (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) Oil (kg) m3 Unit
(kg) (kg)

Wood 1 0.6 0.4 0.3 0.25 0.27 0.28 0.15 0.48 3.33

Charcoal 1.66 1 0.66 0.5 0.42 0.45 0.47 0.25 0.8 5.55

Coal 2.5 1.5 1 0.75 0.63 0.68 0.71 0.37 1.2 8.33

Kerosene 3.33 2 1.33 1 0.85 0.90 0.95 0.5 1.6 11.11

Petrol 3.91 2.35 1.56 1.17 1 1.06 1.11 0.58 1.88 13.05

Diesel
3.66 2.2 1.46 1.1 0.93 1 1.04 0.55 1.76 12.22

Furnace Oil 3.5 2.1 1.4 1.05 0.89 0.95 1 0.52 1.68 11.66

LPG 6.66 4 2.66 2 1.70 1.81 1.90 1 3.2 22.22

Biogas 2.08 1.25 0.83 0.67 0.53 0.56 0.59 0.31 1 6.94

Electricity 0.3 0.18 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.081 0.085 0.04 0.14 1
 Demand comparison based on calorific value
(Actual efficiency)
Fuel Wood Char Coal Kerosene Petrol Diesel Furnace LPG Biogas Electricity
(kg) Coal (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) Oil (kg) m3 Unit
(kg) (kg)

Wood
1 0.36 0.16 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.06 0.03 0.11 0.44
(12%)
Charcoal
2.77 1 0.44 0.2 0.17 0.18 0.19 0.1 0.32 1.23
(20%)
Coal
6.25 2.25 1 0.45 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.22 0.72 2.77
(30%)
Kerosene
13.88 5 2.22 1 0.85 0.90 0.95 0.5 1.6 6.17
(50%)
Petrol
16.31 5.87 2.61 1.17 1 1.06 1.11 0.58 1.88 7.25
(50%)
Diesel
15.27 5.5 2.44 1.11 0.93 1 1.04 0.55 1.76 6.79
(50%)
Furnace Oil
14.58 5.25 2.33 1.05 0.89 0.95 1 0.52 1.68 6.48
(50%)
LPG (50%) 27.77 10 4.44 2 1.70 1.81 1.90 1 3.2 12.34
Biogas (50%) 8.68 3.12 1.38 0.62 0.53 0.56 0.59 0.31 1 3.85
Electricity
2.25 0.81 0.36 0.16 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.08 0.25 1
(90%)
Non-Conventional Energy
Sources
 Renewable Energy Sources
• Source for power generation is not depleted
• Wider application and utilization of nature
• Mostly the energy is available at free of cost
• Capital cost for power generation is high
– Solar energy
– Bio energy
– Wind energy
– Tidal energy
 Resources and Technologies of
Renewable Energy
 Solar
 Wind
 Biomass
 Small Hydro
 Waste to Energy: Municipal Solid / Liquid
Waste, Industrial Waste
 Bio Diesel
 OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy)
 Wave Energy
 Geo-thermal energy
 Fuel Cell Technologies
 Advantages of Renewable Energy
Technologies

* Resources are everlasting

* No environmental concern problems
* Modular in nature
* No T & D losses
* Tailor made power generation system to
cater to customer needs
2
0 Potential of renewable energy sources in India
0 No. Sources / Systems Achievements during Cumulative
9 2008-09 Achievements

I. Power From Renewables

A. Grid-interactive renewable power

1. Biomass Power (Agro residues) 77.50 MW 683.30 MW

2. Wind Power 998.85 MW 9755.85 MW
3. Small Hydro Power (up to 25 MW) 163.83 MW 2344.67 MW
4. Cogeneration-bagasse 232.90 MW 1033.73 MW
5. Waste to Energy 3.66 MW 58.91 MW
6. Solar Power 2.12 MW
Sub Total (in MW) (A) 1,476.74 MW 13,878.58 MW

B. Off-grid/Distributed Renewable Power (including Captive/CHP plants)

7 Biomass Power / Cogen.(non- 60.92 MW 150.92 MW

bagasse)
8. Biomass Gasifier 8.98 MWeq. 160.31 MWeq
9. Waste-to- Energy 4.36 MWeq. 31.06 MWeq
10. Solar PV Power Plants and Street 0.07 MWp 3.00 MWp
Lights
11. Aero-Generators/Hybrid Systems 0.09MW 0.89 MW
Sub Total (B) 74.42 MWeq 346.18 MWeq
Total ( A + B ) 1551.46 MW 14,224.76 MW
 300/NIL Villages/Hamlets
II. Remote Village Electrification 4254 villages + 1156
hamlets

III. Decentralized Energy Systems

12. Family Type Biogas Plants 0.66 lakh 40.90 lakh

13. Home Lighting System 31,754 nos. 4,34,692 nos.
14. Solar Lantern 27,360 nos. 6,97,419 nos.
15. SPV Pumps 7,148 nos.

16. Solar Water Heating - Collector Area 0.03 Mln. sq.m. 2.60 Mln. sq.m.
17. Solar Cookers 6.37 lakh

18. Wind Pumps 80 nos. 1347 nos.

IV. Other Programmes

19. Energy Parks 26 nos. 504 nos.

20. Akshay Urja Shops 15 nos. 289 nos.

MWeq. = Megawatt equivalent; MW = Megawatt; kW = kilowatt; kWp = kilowatt peak; sq. m. =

square meter
 Solar Energy
Sun radiates 180 billion MW of energy
over the earth per day.
The three exclusive technologies for
utilising solar energy are:-

Solar photovoltaic technology

Solar Thermal technology
Solar Passive architecture
Prehistoric trees captured
energy from the Sun

Coal is the
remains of
prehistoric trees.
Solar Photovoltaic
• This technology facilitates in converting the
solar energy into electrical energy and is
being used for applications like
– Lighting

Solar Lanterns Solar Street Lights

Solar lanterns offer best alternative to kerosene
lamps, gas lamps and conventional emergency
lights.

Portable, light and suitable for use in both indoor

and outdoor applications

Solar Lanterns provide opportunity to rural youth

for establishing centralised charging system to
charge set of lanterns and lease them on daily
rental basis. They can also establish sales and
service centres.
– Water pumping
Solar Pumps are useful for agriculture, horticulture
and drinking water purpose.
They can draw water from open wells, bore wells and
streams.
These systems functions during clear sunny days
without any battery back-up.

Solar Water Pump System

– communication systems
– Remote area villages electrification
– Telecom applications
– Traffic signalling
– Railway signalling systems etc.
SOLAR COLLECTORS
Solar thermal technology
The process involves utilising heat energy
from solar radiation for heating, cooking,
drying applications and power generation
etc.
– Solar water heating system

Flat Plate Solar Water Heating Vaccum Tube Solar Water

System Heating System
Solar flat plate collector model water heating
systems consists of solar panels having collectors
which have selective coated fins to absorb heat
from solar radiation and transmitting same to
water passing through the copper tubes attached
to the fins.
The water so heated is stored in an insulated tank
making it possible to get hot water all 24 hours.
These systems are available in capacities of 100
Litres per day (LPD) and in multiples of hundred to
any capacity.
Are ideal to replace geysers in domestic and
commercial sector i.e hotels, nursing homes,
hostels etc., and also in industries as boiler feed
water for pre- heating.
The manufacturing, installation and after sales
service of these systems provide good opportunity
Biomass

Logs, twigs, straw, dung, leaves…..

Bio-energy
Bio-gas & improved smokeless wood burning stoves
are two important schemes being promoted by Ministry
of Non-conventional Energy Sources, New Delhi in
rural areas for conservation of the fossil fuels i.e.
Firewood, kerosene, L.P.G etc.
Bio-gas
Two models of bio-gas plants are being constructed.
Low cost “Deenabandu” model for individual families
Floating drum model bio-gas plant for community and
institutional purposes.
The main raw material used for producing Methane
gas in this bio-gas plant is animal waste (Dung). Bio-
gas plants with kitchen waste and human excretion are
also developed and also in use.
 DEENABADHU MODEL BIOGAS PLANT
Biogas plants of family size, community / institutional
capacities are available.
Methane gas produced in the biogas plant can be used
primarily for cooking, lighting and running IC Engine to
generate power or for mechanical application like water
pumping running flourmill etc.
The Biogas plants can be constructed in rural areas for
individual families who own sufficient number of cattle.
The slurry which comes as by-product from bio gas
plant is rich in Nitrogen content than raw dung which is
used as fertiliser in agriculture farms. Construction of
bio-gas plant needs services of skilled masons and
unskilled workers.
Manufacturing of bio-gas stove and other auxiliary
equipment used in the system needs manufacturing
facilities.
These activities help in generating employment for
skilled and unskilled youth and also developing
entrepreneurs who are engaged as specialised
agencies in implementing the schemes.
Improved smokeless wood burning
stoves
These models help in improving the thermal
efficiency of wood burning stoves and also
help in creating smoke free kitchen. They
will also help in reducing the consumption of
fire-wood and also, helping the children and
women from eye and lung diseases caused
due to smoke.
HYDRO-ELECTRICITY
 Hydro energy
• Potential energy of the water
• Potential energy totally depend upon the head of the
water stored
• Storage of water is very essential for any hydro energy
• Storage improves the irrigation and flood control
measures
• It is renewable energy
• Totally depend on the seasonal variation and
topographical of the land
• Initial investment for generation of power is very high
• Operating cost is negligible
• Source is available only few geographical area far away
from load center
 Hydroelectric Energy :
• Dams are the leading sours of this type of
energy.
• Streams and rivers can also be used to produce
electricity.
• Most cost efficient power available in the world.
• Accounts for 6% of the world’s energy supply, or
about 15% of the world’s electricity.
 Hydroelectric Energy (con’t) :
• The dam is placed on a river to store water
in a reservoir. Water released from the
reservoir flows through a pipe and into a
turbine, which spins to drive a generator,
Producing electricity. This type of energy
uses gravity, and the natural flow of water,
to push the water down the pipes to spin
the turbines.
Hydroelectric Energy (Con’t) :
 Wind Energy :
• Windmills are used to generate electricity
as a source of renewable energy.
• The blades of a wind turbine form a rotor
that captures wind energy.
• Energy increases with the height above
the ground surface. Wind turbines are
usually located on tall towers at least 100
feet above the ground.
 Wind Energy
• There are numerous wind farms located
around the world.
• In the United States they are mostly
located in the central and western part of
the US.
Wind Energy
 Grid interactive power generation from
Renewable Energy Sources in India

Estimated potential :

• Wind - 45,000 M.W.

• Biomass - 52,000 M.W.
• Co-generation - 5,000 M.W.
• Mini Hydel - 15,000 M.W.
• Municipal / Industrial waste - 5,000 M.W.
-------------------
1,22,000 M.W.
-------------------
Alternative Energy
 What do we mean by
Alternative Energy?

Electric Utilities
Fuel Cells Wind Energy

Solar Bio
Energy Energy
What is an alternative source of
energy?
• An energy source that
can be used instead
of fossil fuels.
• It is usually a
renewable source of
energy that could be
used should fossil
fuels run out.
Why is there a need for alternative
sources of energy?
• The graph that you completed last time
shows just how much we rely on fossil
fuels
• 90 per cent of the worlds energy supply’s
come from fossil fuels
• Fossil fuels are convenient and relatively
cheap – a litre of petrol in 1998 would
have been 20p if there was no tax added!
 How much longer can we
depend on fossil fuels?
• Because they are fossil fuels they DO
have a life expectancy
• “Oil has 40 – 50 years left”
• In 1960 they said this too! – what has
happened is that we have found new
reserves of oil and new technology has
made the oil we use last longer
• Burning fossil fuels has increased atmospheric
pollution.
• Vehicle exhausts contribute to acid rain more so
than power stations burning coal.
• The carbon stored in fossil fuels is released as
carbon dioxide when they are burnt – this leads
to the green house effect and global warming
• Don’t get this confused with the hole in the
ozone layer – this was caused by CFC’s
• Coal has the longest life expectancy
• Environmentalists dislike the burning of
this fossil fuel the most as it gives off the
most CO2
• Unless cheap alternatives to burning coal
are found there is likely to be an increase
in its use – especially from Asia which has
a lot!
 So what are the alternative
energy sources to fossil fuels?
• Once upon a time – nuclear power was seen as the
answer. Huge amounts of power could be produced
from a small amount of uranium
• However, it was not well known that it produced
radioactive waste
• The waste is dangerous to health and life for hundreds of
years
• There is no secure place for storage.
• Public confidence has also been shattered by the
explosion at Chernobyl in 1986
 Bio-Fuels

• Outstanding potential when the price

becomes competitive, and they may allow
local availability to overcome (temporary)
national fuel shortages!

• Some adjustments may be needed for certain

boilers, and oil burners.

• Some potential exists for energy

 Biomass Energy (Con’t) :
• It is burned like fossil fuels, but it is renewable.
• Biomass generates about the same amount of
carbon dioxide as fossil fuels, but every time a
new plant grows, the CO2 is actually removed
from the atmosphere. So in the end the net
emission of CO2 will be about zero as long as
plants continue to be replenished. (this is only in
a perfect scenario)
• Wood is our biggest biomass energy source
today.
 Bio Fuel - Ethanol

The
process
is currently
very energy
expensive
and very
inefficient

……....but
someday
soon…..…
 Advantages of using natural
sources of energy
• They are inexhaustible – they will always
be available – they are renewable
• They are clean and will not damage the
Earth
• There are several types – so one or more
of them is present in each country
• Most natural sources can be used on a
small scale and serve local needs
therefore cutting costs of transmitting the
energy
 Biomass Energy :
• All non-fossil organic materials that have an
intrinsic chemical energy content.
• Include: all water and land-based vegetation and
trees, also virgin biomass, and all waste (MSW),
municipal bio-solids (sewage) and animal
wastes (manures), forestry and agricultural
residues, and certain types of industrial wastes.
• Biomass is renewable because it only takes a
short period of time to replace it unlike fossil
fuels.
Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion (OTEC)
 OCEAN ENERGY
• Ocean covers >70% Earth’s surface.
• Largest natural collector and storage
system.
• Largest renewable energy resource.
 OTEC
• The ocean serves as a big storehouse of solar
energy.
• In the tropical regions of the earth, the surface of the
water is heated by the sun, is at an average
temperature of around 25ºC and at depths more than
100m, it is about 5ºC.
• The average difference in temperature of around
20ºC may be used in running a thermodynamic cycle
to yield mechanical power, which in turn could be
used to generate electrical power.
• Because of the very low temperatures involved,
secondary working fluids such as Ammonia,
Propane, R-12, having low boiling point are
proposed to be used.
 OTEC
BOILER
WARM SURFACE
T WATER IN
G

WORKING
FLUID
TO OCEAN

CONDENSER

COLD WATER
FROM OCEAN
DEPTH IN
 OTEC (Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion)
OTEC utilizes T between warm shallow
and cold deep ocean waters to run a heat
engine.
OTEC Technology – Open cycle
OTEC plant
OTEC Technology – Closed cycle
OTEC plant
 ENVIRONMENTAL DESIGN
PARAMETERS
• Temperature & salinity vs depth
• Deep water wave characteristics
• Meteorological conditions
• Extreme water level
• Shallow water condition
• Deep ocean nutrient content
 Advantages
• Collection and storage of energy is done by nature
and hence costs nothing.
• This phenomenon of heating up of ocean water
occurs through out the year and so continuous
power supply may be assured.
• 100 MW OTEC plant prevents CO2 emission of
140,000 tonnes/year.
 Disadvantages
• The very small temperature difference necessarily
means thermo-dynamic efficiency of the order of 2 to
3%.
• The low level of efficiency in turn, call for handling
large quantities of working fluid to obtain reasonable
amount of power.
• The heat exchange boilers and condensers-become
necessarily big and capital cost goes up.
• On-shore installations require long and big pipings,
which add up to the cost. The proposal is therefore
in favor of offshore installations using floating
platforms.
• The material suggested for heat exchangers are
titanium or alloy of copper and nickel, which are
resistant to corrosion. But then, the cost adds up.
 Applications

• Mineral extraction from seawater

• Refrigeration and Air-conditioning
• Desalined water(2 MW plant produces 4300 m3
of distilled water every day)
• Deep water supported mari culture-rich
nutrients for aquatic systems.
TIDAL ENERGY
 Tides
• Tide or wave is periodic rise and fall
level of the sea
• Tides occur due to the attraction of
seawater by the moon
• Tides contains large amount of
potential energy, which is used for
power generation
 TIDAL ENERGY
*Form of water power that occurs in the ocean
* Converts the energy of tides into electricity
 TIDAL ENERGY
* Renewable resource because it can be replenished
* Caused by the Moon’s gravity which will last a long
time
 TIDAL ENERGY
Tidal energy is the
result of the Moon’s
Gravitational
attraction on Earth
and the way the
moon’s gravity pulls
the oceans in a
bulge as the Moon
orbits Earth – the
tide must raise the
water at least 10
feet
 Tides Governed by Earth-Moon-Sun
Greatest range occurs
when sun and moon
pull in same direction
Tidal changes in sea level (spring tide)
occur as Earth rotates
beneath bulges in ocean
envelope, which are
produced by solar and Weakest when
lunar gravitational forces sun and
and centrifugal forces moon in
opposition
North Pole
(neap tide)
Earth rotates counter-clockwise

Resource Variable
MOON’S ORBIT
but Predictable
Tidal Power Generation
 Tides
• When the water is above the mean sea level it is
called flood tide.
• When the water is below the mean sea level it is
called ebb tide.
• At the time of high tide, water is at a high level and
can be let into a basin to be stored at a high level
there. The same water can be let back into the sea
during the low tide through the turbines, thus
producing power
• Since the basin water level is high and seawater is
low, there is a differential head comparable to the
tidal range, which can be utilized for the running of
the turbines
 Turning Tides into Usable Energy
• Ebb generating system
• A dam (barrage) is built
across the mouth of an
estuary.
• Sluice gates allow
incoming tides to fill the
basin.
• As the tide ebbs, the
water is forced through
a turbine system to
generate electricity.
 Types of Turbines
Bulb turbine used at La Rance tidal plant on the Brittany coast in France
TIDAL ENERGY
 TIDAL ENERGY
ADVANTAGES:

Reliable and Predictable

Clean Energy
Alternative – Needs
no Fuel

Renewable Water is Dense and Free

 Advantages
– It is free from pollution, as it does not use
any fuel.
– It is superior from hydropower plant as it
is totally independent of rain.
– It improves the possibility of fish farming
in the tidal basins and it can provide
recreational facilities to visitors and
holidaymakers.
 Advantages

• Renewable
• Abundant (estimated that it could produce 16% of
worlds energy.)
• Pollution free (except during construction)
• Relatively consistent (unlike wind that is
inconsistent and is highly concentrated in certain
areas depending on the topography.)
• Water is a free resource
• Presents no difficulty to migrating aquatic animals
(avoidable)
 TIDAL ENERGY
DISADVANTAGES:

Limited use and can affect fish migration

Impact on shore line

Expensive parts
 Disadvantages
• Tidal power plants can be developed only if natural
sites available on the bay
• As the sites are available on the bays, which are
always far away from load centers, the power
generated has to be transmitted to long distances.
This increases the transmission cost and
transmission losses
• The supply of power is not continuous as it depends
upon the timing of tides
• The navigation is obstructed
• Utilization of tidal energy on small scale is not
economical
 Disadvantages
• Disturbance/Destruction to marine life (effect wave
climate that effects shallow/shore plant life)
• Expensive to construct (estimated 1.2 billion
dollars.)
• Reliability (have not been around long so we do not
know long-term reliability is.)
• Recreational costs (visual impact, sport fishing,
swimming, etc.)
• Cost of Maintenance Higher
• Power transmission from offshore facilities harder
• Power quality (waves fluctuation)
 TIDAL ENERGY
* Good Alternative Energy Resource for Future
Geothermal Energy
Sources of Earth’s Internal Energy

•70% comes from the decay of radioactive nuclei with long

half lives that are embedded within the Earth
•Some energy is from residual heat left over from Earths
formation.
•The rest of the energy comes from meteorite impacts.
 Availability of Geothermal Energy
• On average, the Earth emits
1/16 W/m2. However, this
number can be much higher in
areas such as regions near
volcanoes, hot springs and
fumaroles.
• As a rough rule, 1 km3 of hot
rock cooled by 1000C will yield
30 MW of electricity over thirty
years.
• It is estimated that the world
could produce 600,000 EJ over
5 million years.
• There is believed to be enough
heat radiating from the center of
the Earth to fulfill human energy
demands for the remainder of
the biosphere’s lifetime.
• Geothermal production of
energy is 3rd highest among
renewable energies. It is
behind hydro and biomass, but
before solar and wind.
 Modern Day
• Geothermal energy is used for:
– heating of pools and spas
– greenhouses and aquaculture facilities
– space heating and district heating
– snow melting
– agricultural drying
– industrial applications
– ground-source heat pumps
How is geothermal energy created?

• Wells are drilled

into the
geothermal
reservoirs
 How is geothermal energy created?
• Steam, heat, or hot
water from reservoirs
spin the turbine
• Used water is
returned down an
injection well
 Different Geothermal Energy
Sources
 Hot Water Reservoirs: As the name implies these are
reservoirs of hot underground water. There is a large
amount of them in the US, but they are more suited for
space heating than for electricity production.
 Natural Stem Reservoirs: In this case a hole dug into
the ground can cause steam to come to the surface.
This type of resource is rare in the US.
 Geopressured Reservoirs: In this type of reserve,
brine completely saturated with natural gas in stored
under pressure from the weight of overlying rock. This
type of resource can be used for both heat and for
natural gas.
Normal Geothermal Gradient: At any place on the
planet, there is a normal temperature gradient of +300C
per km dug into the earth. Therefore, if one digs 20,000
feet the temperature will be about 1900C above the
surface temperature. This difference will be enough to
produce electricity. However, no useful and economical
technology has been developed to extracted this large
source of energy.

Hot Dry Rock: This type of condition exists in 5% of the

US. It is similar to Normal Geothermal Gradient, but the
gradient is 400C/km dug underground.

Molten Magma: No technology exists to tap into the

heat reserves stored in magma.
 Direct uses of geothermal energy is
appropriate for sources below 1500C
• space heating
• air conditioning
• industrial processes
• drying
• Greenhouses
• Aquaculture
• hot water
• resorts and pools
• melting snow
 Geothermal Power Plant

• It is also a thermal power plant, but the steam

required for power generation is available in
some part of the earth surface.
• According to various theories earth has a molten
core. The fact that volcanic action takes place in
many places in many places on the surface of
earth supports these theories.
 Geothermal Power Plant
CONTROLS SEPARATOR TURBINE

GENERATOR

STEAM TURBINE

CONDENSER

PIPES
(STEAM WELL) PUMP
15,000m

M
T EA
S
UND
RO
E RG
D
O UN RAGE
T STO

UNDER GROUND
STEAM STORAGE
 Working
 Steam Well : Pipes are embedded at places of fresh
volcanic action called steam wells, where the molten
internal mass of earth vents to the atmosphere with
very high temperatures.
 By sending water through embedded pipes, steam is
raised from the underground steam storage wells to
the ground level
 Separator: The steam is then passed through the
separator where most of the dirt and sand carried by
the steam are removed
 Turbine: The steam from the separator is passed
through steam drum and is used to run the turbine,
which in turn drives the generator
 The exhaust steam from the turbine is condensed
 The condensate is pumped into the earth to absorb
the ground heat again to get converted into steam
 ADVANTAGES OF USING
GEOTHERMAL ENERGY

• Some advantages geothermal energy production

provides over non-renewables
– Clean

– Less land stress

– Reliable

– Stimulates Economy
 Advantages
 Energy is continuously available and is more dependable
 It has a good potential among the non-conventional energy
sources
 Capital and generation cost is the lowest compared to nuclear
and coal plants
 No solid pollutants and no radiation fall out Useful minerals, such
as zinc and silica, can be extracted from underground water.
 Geothermal energy is “homegrown”.This will create jobs, a better
global trading position and less reliance on oil producing
countries.
 Geothermal plants can be online 100% - 90% of the time. Coal
plants can only be online 75% of the time and nuclear plants can
only be online 65% of the time.
 Geothermal electric plants production is 13.380 g of Carbon
dioxide per kWh, whereas the CO2 emissions are 453 g/kWh for
natural gas, 906g g/kWh for oil and 1042 g/kWh for coal.
 Geothermal plants do not require a lot of land, 400m2 can
produce a gigawatt of energy over 30 years.
 Challenges

• High Price And Risky

• Discovering Heat
Reservoirs
• Land Space to Create
Plant
 Disadvantages
• Gaseous effluent, especially Hydrogen sulphide, is a
nuisance
• Ground subsidence may occur
• Life span may be less compared with nuclear and coal
plants
• The highly mineralized effluent may pollute ground water
and hence requires reinjection into well
• Problem of corrosion of components due to salt
• Thermal pollution due to effluent if not reinjected
 Disadvantages
 Brine can salinate soil if the water is not injected back into the
reserve after the heat is extracted.

 Extracting large amounts of water can cause land subsidence, and

this can lead to an increase in seismic activity. To prevented this the
cooled water must be injected back into the reserve in order to keep
the water pressure constant underground.

 Power plants that do not inject the cooled water back into the ground
can release H2S, the “rotten eggs” gas. This gas can cause
problems if large quantities escape because inhaling too much is
fatal.
 One well “blew its top” 10 years after it was built, and this threw
hundreds of tons of rock, mud and steam into the atmosphere.

 There is the fear of noise pollution during the drilling of wells.

 Case Study
• Simultaneous generation of heat and power based geothermal power
plant for the first time has been operated in Mecklenburg, Germany
since 2003.
Principle
• The plant uses Organic Rankine Cycle steam power units, which works
effectively at low temperatures.
Heat
 The thermal water is carried to the surface to feed the heat supply
using geothermal probes.
 This water is often mineralized, the salt content in thermal water is 220
g/l and is therefore not usually directly used.
 So it is fed through heat-exchangers to transfer the energy into the
district heating system, and then pushed back deep into the earth.
 Plant was designed for an annual output of 21,000 MWhr.
Power
 In addition to district heating, geothermal power plant is used for
generating power.
 Power plant is fed with hot water at 98°C from 2200m underground.
 Water transfers its heat energy via the heat exchanger to the turbine
circuit.
 It is relatively low temperature power generation, a synthetic organic
substance that boils at 31°C is used in the turbine.
 Geothermal power plant can supply over 500 apartments of 1400
MWhr/yr to cover electricity requirement of 74000 residents.
Magneto Hydro Dynamics
(MHD)
 INTRODUCTION
Magnetic Field Effects:

-- exerts a force
(creates structure)
-- provides insulation
-- stores energy
(released in flare)
 MHD
• MHD power generation is a new system of electric power
generation, which is said to be of high efficiency and low
pollution.
• In advanced countries MHD generators are widely used
but in developing countries like India it is still under
construction. This construction work is in progress at
Trichy in Tamilnadu under joint effort of BARC (Bhabha
Atomic Research Centre), BHEL, Associated Cement
Corporation (ACC) and Russian technologies.
• As its name implies, Magneto hydro dynamics (MHD) is
concerned with the flow of a conducting fluid in the
presence of magnetic and electric field.
• The fluid may be gas at elevated temperature or liquid
metal like sodium or potassium.
• An MHD generator is a device for converting heat energy
of a fuel directly into electrical energy without a
conventional electric generator
 MHD
• MHD power generation uses the interaction of
an electrically conducting fluid with a magnetic
field to convert part of the energy of the fluid
directly into electricity.
• MHD - the study of the interaction between a
magnetic field and a plasma, treated as a
continuous medium.
• Converts thermal or kinetic energy into
electricity.
 MHD

COMBUSTION
NOZZLE
CHAMBER
ELECTRODES

D.C
GAS FLOW
LOAD

GENERATOR
CHANNEL
Principles of MHD Power Generation
• The principle of MHD generation is simply that
discovered by Faraday: When an electric conductor
moves across a magnetic field a voltage is induced
in it which produces an electric current.
• This is the principle of the conventional generator
also, where a gaseous conductor, an ionized gas,
replaces the conductors. If such a gas is passed at a
high velocity through a powerful magnetic field, a
current is generated and can extracted by placing
electrodes in a suitable position in the stream. This
arrangement as illustrated in the Fig provides DC
power directly.
 Conversion Efficiency
• MHD generator alone: 10-20%

• Steam plant alone: ≈ 40%

• MHD generator coupled with a steam

plant: up to 60%
 Losses
• Heat transfer to walls

• Friction

• Maintenance of magnetic field

MHD + Steam plant
Other uses of MHD Technology
• The “Yamoto” a boat
built by Mitsubishi
powered solely by MHD
propulsion
• Can travel up to 15km/hr
Thermionic Energy Conversion
system
 Thermionic Energy Conversion
system
• Another form of direct conversion of heat energy to
electrical energy has been achieved in the thermionic
converter. It utilizes the thermionic emission effect, that
is, the emission of electrons from heated metal (and
some oxide) surfaces.
• The energy required to extract an electron from the
metal is an important parameter, known as the work
function of the metal. Typical values of the order of a few
electron volts. The value of the work function varies with
the nature of the metal and its surface condition.
• In principle, a thermionic consists of two metals (or
electrodes) with different work function is maintained at a
higher temperature than one with the smaller work
function.
Thermionic Energy Conversion system

Cold electrode
(Collector)
Hot electrode
or
(Emitter)
or Anode
Cathode
Evacuated
vessel

Electrons
External
DC Load
 Emitter
Collector

Heat In Heat Out

Electron
Load Current
 Thermionic Energy Conversion system
• System consists of two electrodes held in a
container filled with ionized cesium vapour.
Heating one electrode, electrons are emitted,
that travel to the opposite, colder electrode. The
hotter electrode (or emitter) emits electrons (i.e.
negative charges) and so acquires a positive
charge, whereas the colder electrode (or
collector) collects electrons and becomes
negatively charged.

• A voltage (or electromotive force) thus develops,

between the two electrodes and a direct electric
current will flow in an external circuit (or load)
connecting them.
• The voltage, which may be 1 volt (or so), is
determined primarily by the difference in the
work function of the electrode materials.
• Because electrons cannot travel far in air,
thermionic converters require that the electrodes
be in a vacuum. This limits the size of the
converter so that only small-scale power
production is feasible
 Problems to be overcome
• Find material with high enough emission

• Space charge
 Types of TEC
• Closed space diode
• Caesium diode
• TECs with auxiliary discharge
Thermionic Energy Conversion system

Some applications

•Electric vehicles
•Topping cycle
•Cogeneration
•Solar cell
•Domestic heating and electricity supply
•In-pile system
 SUMMARY

Developments making TECs more feasible

•Advances in electronic emitter materials

•New methods of plasma analysis by computer

simulation

•Application of microminiaturisation techniques

Thermoelectric Energy
Conversion System
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

• Thermo-electric generator is a device, which converts

heat energy (thermal energy) into electrical energy
through semi-conductor or conductor.
• The direct conversion of heat energy into electric energy
(i.e. without a conventional electric generator) based on
the Seebeck Thermo electric effect.
• Consider two dissimilar materials joined together in the
form of a loop so that there are two junctions.
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion

Material-1

Heat
Hot junction Cold junction
T2 T1
Hea
t

Material-2
V
 Seebeck Effect
• In 1821, Thomas Seebeck found that an electric
current would flow continuously in a closed circuit
made up of two dissimilar metals, if the junctions of
the metals were maintained at two different
temperatures.

S= dV / dT;
S is the Seebeck Coefficient with units of Volts per Kelvin
S is positive when the direction of electric current is same
as the direction of thermal current
 Thermoelectric Energy Conversion
• If a temperature difference is maintained
between these two junctions, an electric current
will flow round the loop. The magnitude of the
current will depend on both the materials used
and the temperature difference of the junction
(ΔT = T2 -T1). If the circuit is broken an open
circuit voltage ‘V’ appears across the thermals
of the break as shown in figure.
• The thermo emf, V produced by the device is
given by
V= S1-2ΔT
S1-2 - Seebeck Coefficient.
 Thermoelectric Power Generation

• Used in Space shuttles and rockets for

compact source of power.

• Energy recovery from automobile engines

• Diffusive heat flow and Peltier effect are

additive i.e. both reduce the temperature
gradient.
Fuel Cells
 Fuel Cells

• Electro-chemical device for the continuous

conversion of a portion of the free energy change of
a chemical reaction to electrical energy.
• It is distinguished from a battery in that it operates
with continuous replenishment of the fuel and the
oxidant at active electrode area and does not require
recharging.
• Main component of a fuel cell are (i) a fuel electrode
(ii) an oxidant or air electrode and (iii) an electrolyte
 Introduction to Fuel Cells
• A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or
hydrogen rich fuel) and oxygen to create
electricity by an electrochemical process.

• If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, fuel cells emit

only heat and water as a byproduct.

• Current applications: power passenger vehicles,

commercial buildings, homes, and laptop
computers.
 Why We Want to Use Fuel
Cells?
• Environmental concern of using
fossil fuel (e.g. poisonous emissions)

• Oil crises

• Global warming
• A fuel cell is a controlled chemical and electrical energy conversion
device which continuously converts chemical energy to electrical
energy.
• In a hydrogen, oxygen fuel cell electrochemical reaction involves the
process of ionisation in which atoms or molecules looses or gains
one or more electron.
• Loosing one electron gives the atom overall positive charge and
gaining an electron gives negative charge.
• Water can be ionised into hydroxyl ion(-) and hydrogen ion(+) when
two dissimilar metal electrodes like sodium, zinc, cadmium is placed
in a solution containing ions. Voltage is developed between
positively charged electrode.
• In fuel cell the reactants are continuously fed to the cell and
electrically it is extracted.
• Therefore the fuel cell is like a storage battery but with regular
supply of fuel and oxygen.
 Fuel Cell
Anode Cathode

e
-
H+
H2 O2
H2  2H+ + 2e- ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O

Electrolyte

Overall: H2 + ½ O2  H2O
 Fuel Cell Components
• Components catalyst
electrodes
– Electrolyte (Membrane)
• Transport ions
• Block electrons, gases
– Electrodes
• Catalyze reactions
• Transport
– Ions, electrons,
gases
sealant
• May be a composite
electrolyte
– (electro)Catalyst +
– Conductors + Membrane-Electrode
– Pore former Assembly (MEA)
 Fuel Cells
• Some of the fuel cells are hydrogen, oxygen(H2O2),
hydrazine (N2H4O2), Carbon/coal(C,O2),, methane (CH4,O2).
• Hydrogen, oxygen (Hydroxy) fuel cells, are efficient and
highly developed.
• In the hydrox cell, catalyst is embedded in Nickel
electrode.The electrolyte is typically 30% KOH because of
its high electrical conductivity and it is less corrosive
than acids.
• Cell reactions are,
Anode reaction : 2H2 4H+ + 4e-
Cathode reaction : 2H2 + O2 2H2O (vapour) + Energy
• H2 is fed to one electrode and is absorbed. It gives
off free electrons and also reacts with hydroxyl ions
of the electrolyte to form water.The free electrons
travel towards oxygen electrode through the external
circuit.
• The two electrons at the external circuit combine
with one molecule of water to form 2OH- ions.
• These OH- ions migrate towards H2 electrode and are
consumed there.
• The electrolyte remains invariant. The cell operates
at or slightly above atmospheric pressure and at
temperature of about 90ºC.These types of cells are
called low temperature cells. In high-pressure cells
pressure is upto about 45 atmosphere and
temperature is upto 300ºC.
• A single hydrogen, oxygen fuel cell can produce an
emf of 1.23 Volt at atmospheric pressure and at
25ºC.By connecting number of cells, it is possible to
create useful potential of 100 to 1000 volts and
power levels of 1 kW to nearly 100MW.
• The overall efficiency of the cell is the ratio of the
power generated and the heating value of the
hydrogen consumed.
 Comparison between different types of fuel cells
Aspects PEMFC AFC PAFC MCFC SOFC

Type of H+ ions (With OH- ions H+ ions (H3PO4 CO32- ions (Typically O2- ions (Stabilized
electrolyte anion bound in (Typically solutions) molten LiK2CO3 ceramic matrix with
polymer aqueous KOH eutectics) free oxide ions)
membrane) solutions)

Typical Plastic, metal Plastic, metal Carbon, porous High temperature Ceramic, High
construction or carbon ceramics metals, porous temperature metals
ceramic
Internal No No No Yes, Good Yes, Good
Reforming Temperature match Temperature match

Oxidant Air to O2 Purified Air Air to enriched air Air Air

to O2

Operational 65 – 85 ºC 90 - 260 ºC 190 - 210 ºC 650 - 700 ºC 750 - 1000 ºC

Temperature

Distributed 25 - 35 32 - 40 35 - 45 40 - 50 45 - 55
Generation
system level
(η %)

Primary CO,NH3 and CO,CO2 and CO < 1% sulphur Sulphur Sulphur

contaminate sulphur sulphur
sensitivities
 Types of Fuel Cell

• PEMFC – Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell or

Polymer Electrolyte Membrane
• AFC – Alkaline Fuel Cell
• PAFC – Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
• MCFC – Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• SOFC – Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
 Fuel Cell Choices
Temperature sets operational parameters & fuel choice

• Ambient Temperature • High Temperature

 Rapid start-up
 H2 or CH3OH as fuels
 Catalysts easily poisoned
• Applications
– Portable power
– Many on/off cycles
– Small size
 Fuel flexible
 Very high efficiencies
 Long start-up
• Applications
– Stationary power
– Auxiliary power in
portable systems
 How Fuel Cells Work
• A fuel cell is a device that uses hydrogen (or
hydrogen-rich fuel) and oxygen to create
electricity by an electrochemical process.

• A single fuel cell consists of an electrolyte

sandwiched between two thin electrodes (a
porous anode and cathode).
 Types of Fuel Cells
• Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM)
• Phosphoric Acid
• Direct Methanol
• Alkaline
• Molten Carbonate
• Solid Oxide
• Regenerative (Reversible)
 PEM
• Also called SPEFC (Solid Polymer Electrolyte
Fuel Cells)
• Use a proton exchange membrane as an
electrolyte.
• Low temperature fuel cells (85-1050C)
• Nafion® membranes (developed by DuPont)
consists of a polyterrafluoreethylene (PTFE)
based structure
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane
(PEM)
 Alkali Fuel Cell
• Electrolyte: KOH in H2O
– Liquid in a matrix, or liquid recirculated
• Mobile species: OH-
• Half cell reactions
– anode: H2 + 2OH-  2H2O + 2e-
H2O available
– cathode: ½ O2 + H2O + 2e-  2OH- in electrolyte
• Catalysts
– anode: Ni, Ni-Pt, Ni-Co, etc.
– cathode: NiO, Ag, etc.
– unlike other fuel cells, rapid cathode kinetics, slower anode
• Features
– High power output due to rapid electrocatalysis rates
– Inexpensive materials
– Highly sensitive to CO2: KOH(aq) + CO2  K2CO3 (ppt)
– Used by NASA for manned missions
Alkaline
 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell
• Electrolyte: H3PO4 + H2O (~20%)
– Liquid in a SiC matrix
• Mobile species: H+
• Half cell reactions
– anode: H2  2H+ + 2e-
– cathode: ½ O2 + 2H+ + 2e-  H2O
• Catalysts
– anode + cathode: Pt/Vulcan carbon
– Pt coarsens with time, phosphate adsorbs to surface
– like most fuel cells, slow cathode kinetics, faster anode
• Features
– Low power output due to slow cathode kinetics
– Expensive catalysts, and very high cost per power output
– Catalyst relatively insensitive to CO (due to high temp)
– “Commercialized” in 1990’s, then abandoned, now on again
Phosphoric Acid
 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell
• Electrolyte: K2CO3, Na2CO3, Li2CO3 eutectic liq (500-700°C)
– Liquid in a LiAlO2 matrix
• Mobile species: CO3=
• Half cell reactions
– anode: H2 + CO3=  CO2+ H2O + 2e-
CO2
– cathode: ½ O2 + CO2 + 2e-  CO3= recirculated
• Catalysts
– anode: Ni-Al, Ni-Cr alloys
– cathode: NiO
– like most fuel cells, slow cathode kinetics, faster anode
• Features
– High temperature  in situ hydrocarbon fuel reforming
– Highly corrosive environment
– NiO dissolution at cathode & precipitation at anode as Ni
– Largely abandoned in the US, but Japan and Europe continue
Molten Carbonate
 PEM Fuel Cell
• Electrolyte: Sulfonated, perfluorinated polymer [Nafion]
– “water–polymer composite”
• Mobile species: H(H2O)n+ [not H+]
• Half cell reactions
– anode: H2 + 2nH2O  2H(H2O)n+ + 2e-
H2O
– cathode: ½ O2 + 2H(H2O)n+ + 2e-  H2O recirculated
• Catalysts
– anode: Pt/Vulcan carbon ~ 0.1 mg/cm2
– cathode: Pt/Vulcan carbon ~ 1 mg/cm2
– like other fuel cells, slow cathode kinetics, fast anode
• Features
– High power output due to rapid electrocatalysis rates
– Expensive materials
– Catalyst highly sensitive to impurities: CO
– Corrosive environment  degradation, e.g. Pt coarsening
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane
(PEM)
 Solid Oxide Fuel Cell
• Electrolyte: yttria stabilized zirconia, YSZ, Zr0.92Y0.08O1.96
– true solid electrolyte
• Mobile species: O= [or oxygen vacancy]
• Half cell reactions
– anode: H2 + O=  H2O + 2e-
– cathode: ½ O2 + 2e-  O=
• Catalysts
– anode: Ni + YSZ
– cathode: (La,Sr)MnO3-d
– like other fuel cells, slow cathode kinetics, fast anode
• Features
– Relatively high power output
– Expensive manufacturing, auxiliary component materials
– In principle, hydrocarbon fuels can be directly oxidized
– Under steady conditions, little degradation
Solid Oxide
 Advantages
Some of the advantages of fuel cells are:
• It is a direct conversion process and does not
involve a thermal process, so it has high operating
efficiency. Present day fuel cell efficiency is 38% and
is expected to reach 60%.
• The unit is lighter, smaller and needs less
maintanence.
• Fuel power plants may further cut generation costs
by reducing transmission losses.
• Little pollution, little noise so that it can be readily
acceptable in resident areas.
 Benefits of Using Fuel Cells

• They produce much small quantities of

greenhouse gases that contribute to global
warming.

• None of the air pollutants that create smog and

cause health problems.

• If pure hydrogen is used as a fuel, ONLY heat

and water are emitted.
 Drawbacks

The drawbacks are:

 Low voltage
 High initial cost
 Low service life
 Applications

Fuel Cell Generator

Fuel Cell Bus

Power Generation/Conversion
Fuel Cell Car
Hydrogen as a future energy
source
 Reasons for change
Energy
Environment
shortage

Energy
security

Environment Energy shortages Energy security

 Reduction in greenhouse  Peak oil running out  Minimising reliance on

gases (CO2, NOx, SOx)  Hydrocarbon gas supplies a long Imported energy
 Eco friendly use of waste way from point of use  Changing political climate
products  Emergence of rapidly developing increases dependence on
 Desire to use renewable economies greatly increasing unstable regimes
energy World’s energy requirement  Hydrogen can be produced
 Desire to meet emissions  A long term energy solution from multiple sources
goals (eg: Kyoto)
 Energy Efficiency
• Maximum 80% efficient for conversion to H2
from other fuels.
• Liquefying H2 uses up to 1/3 rd of it’s energy
value!
• Liquid storage losses can be 2-3% per day
• Compression requires significant energy input
input

It’s not energy efficient!

 Environmental issues
• Steam Methane reforming produces more CO2
than current Hydrocarbon fuels for vehicles.
• Electrolysis can be environmentally friendly
depending on how the electricity is produced.

It may not be Environmentally friendly !

 So why Hydrogen?
• It will never run out – unlike Oil and Gas.
• It can be produced in several ways from different
sources.
• It provides energy security - any country can make
their own.
• It can be used in either Fuel Cells (FC’s) or Internal
Combustion Engines (ICE’s)
• The world wants an environmentally friendly fuel –
Hydrogen has the potential.
• At some point, Hydrogen will be cheaper than
Hydrocarbons.
• Clean at point of use
 Hydrogen as a future energy source

• The use of energy may lead to climate changes. It is

thus necessary to make the transition to cleaner and
environmentally favourable energy carriers.
• Hydrogen has the best potential of becoming the fuel of
the future. Hydrogen can be produced from sustainable,
renewable sources and may contribute to meet the
growth in world energy demand.
• Hydrogen is an energy carrier for the future. It is a clean
fuel that can be used in places where it is hard to use
electricity. Sending electricity a long way costs four times
as much as shipping hydrogen by pipeline.
 Hydrogen as a future energy source

• Hydrogen is a carbon-free energy carrier. When used in

fuel cells, there are no harmful emissions.
• The current production of hydrogen is 500 billion
m3/year,equivalent to 3.3 million barrels of oil per day.
This again is equivalent to 10% of the energy currently
used in transportation.
• Presently, hydrogen production represents only about 1
percent of worldwide oil production. The only place it has
been used for fuel in significant quantity is the NASA
space shuttle.
 H2 as the energy source of tomorrow
A storage medium for heat and electricity:
• hydrogen = ideal energy source to bridge the time and
distance gaps between supply and demand:
 as a component of water, a resource available in large
quantities
 environmentally compatible as part of the biological life cycle
 its oxidation creates pure water
 easily transported and stored in compressed gas form or as
a supercooled liquid
 releases chemically stored energy in the form of heat, or in
the form of electricity and heat in fuel cells
 high energy content = suitable as fuel for cars
H2 as the energy source of tomorrow
H2 as the energy source of tomorrow
On the way to our energy source of the future
 On the way to our energy source of the future

 Advantages of Sustainable Energy:

 fossil fuel resources no longer burnt
 cyclical system: hydrogen as well as the energy
required to generate it are derived from
renewable sources
 combustion of hydrogen emits no greenhouse
gases
 local power supply in the home and cars
• The following hurdles may be overcome if hydrogen is to
be a viable source of energy in the future:

 The long-term nature of the transition may be recognized

and a strategy developed now.
 Durable and affordable fuel cells must be developed.
 On-board storage and safety issues must be resolved for
hydrogen – powered cars.
 Hydrogen has to be produced cheaply and in such a way
that doesn’t use more than it is produced.
Energy Conservation and Energy
Management
 Energy Management vs
Energy Conservation
Conservation is the reduction of usage.

Management is the judicious and effective

use of utilities to maximize profits
(minimize costs) and enhance
competitive positions.
Energy and Financial Management
EM is strikingly similar to FINANCIAL
management:
• Identify goals;
• Select the investments needed to reach the goals;
• Establish a blueprint & strategy for goal attainment;
• Start early, if only with small efforts;
• Maintain regular contributions over time;
• Keep track of earnings; and
• Defeat risk through reinvestment and diversification of
earnings.
 Energy Management Benefits
Initial Effort (First two years)
• 5-15% cost savings
• Little or no capital expenditure
Long-Term Effort
• 25% or higher cost savings
• Requires management commitment
• A never ending process
 Focusing Energy Management
• Focus on COST not USAGE
• Pareto Principle
– 20% of loads account for 80% of costs
– Identify these 20% loads
• Control and meter these loads
• Develop a “Cost Center” mentality
– Don’t treat utilities as overhead
 Starting Your Energy Action Plan
•Designate an Energy Management
Coordinator
•Establish the Energy Management Team
•Evaluate cost saving opportunities
•Prioritize implementation
•Implement
•Evaluate success (e.g. benchmarking) and
promote
 Energy Management
Coordinator
• A single person
• Dynamic
• Goal oriented
• Good manager
• Wears other hats
 GOALS OF THE EMC
• Architect of the “Energy Action Plan”
• Provide effective energy reporting and
analysis (energy accounting)
• Secure management commitment
• Establish “cost center” mentality
• Establish energy cost/usage standards
• Provide EM training
• Set EM objectives (defined goals)
 EXAMPLE ENERGY
MANGEMENT GOALS
• Reduce electric cost per unit of production
by 10% the first year and 5% in the
second
• Within 2 years all tenants will be
separately metered
• Facility will have a contingency plan for
gas curtailment by end of first year
• All boilers will be examined for waste heat
recovery potential the first year
 ENERGY MANAGEMENT TEAM
Energy Management
Coordinator

Technical Support

Steering Group
Energy Management
Which factors does Energy Management deal with?

•People
•Building
•Energy type used
•Installed equipment
•External factors
•Legislation – ‘One will have to
comply’
Energy Conservation
 Energy Conservation
• In economic terms, energy is termed as a demand-
derived good.That is, energy is an intermediate good
whose demand depends on the demand of the final
(end-use) goods and services it produces.
• Energy conservation can be defined as the substitution
of energy with capital labour or material and time.
• Energy conservation can also be defined as the
substitution of this generation’s energy with that of future
generations, known as “intertemporal substitution”
(substitution of this generation energy with that of future
generations).
• Energy conservation invokes avoiding wastage of energy
and adopting methods to save energy without affecting
the productivity and comforts of machine / labour.
The two points to be considered before demanding more
conservation efforts are:
• Whether the depletion of the given resource can be offset
by new exploration and findings. That is, is the resource
really limited, and hard to replace in a short time.
• The intertemporal welfare of consuming this type of
energy. That is, is the marginal utility of consuming this
energy in this generation larger than the utility of
consuming it in the next generation.
 Principles of Energy Conservation

 The two principles governing energy conservation are

• Maximum thermodynamic efficiency.
• Maximum cost-effectiveness in energy use.

 We can maximize this efficiency by the following

conservation measures
• Using condensers to recapture the heat discharged as many
times as possible
• Reducing heat loss with better heat exchangers
 Maximum cost-effectiveness in energy use is achieved if
the production factor or intertemporal substitution is
made to maximize energy efficiency at the least cost.
From this, maximum cost-effectiveness in energy use is
determined by two cost components:

• Conservation costs (Costs for implementing energy

conservation efforts in order to save energy)
• Energy costs (Unit energy cost will decline as more
conservation measures are implemented to reduce
energy use)
 Energy Use in India
• Energy consumption in India is low, though efficiency of use is reasonable
– Per capita energy consumption is 530 kgoe; world average is 1770
– Energy intensity of Indian economy was 0.18 kgoe/$-GDP(PPP) in 2004;
compared to 0.14 in Japan and 0.19 in the EU

• Energy demand is increasing due to rising incomes, accelerated

industrialization, urbanization and population growth
– 2003-04 : 572 Mtoe
– 2016-17 : 842-916 Mtoe
– 2026-27 : 1406-1561 Mtoe

• Meeting the increasing demand only through increases in supply may lead to:
– Reduced energy security due to volatility in availability and prices of
imported fuels
– Adverse environmental impacts
– Strain on balance of payments

• Energy conservation and energy-efficiency are an essential part of national

energy strategy
 IMPORTANCE OF ENERGY
CONSERVATION
• Energy efficiency/conservation measures can reduce peak
and average demand.
.
• One unit saved avoids 2.5 to 3 times of fresh capacity.

• Also avoids investment in fuel, mining, transportation etc.

• Keeping the above factors in view and also to provide a policy

guidance, Government of India enacted the Energy
Conservation Act,2001
 Application of waste heat for energy
conservation

Case study 1 : Distilled water from Engine exhaust heat

• CHP delivers electrical and thermal energy in such a way that
much more of the energy content of the input fuel is used - by
utilizing waste heat.
• Diesel engine operates with a thermal efficiency of 40%. So
waste heat is 60% of the available heat.
For example, diesel car having the Air, Fuel ratio of 1: 15
• Mass of Exhaust gas leaving from the engine = 16 kg/kg of fuel
• Engine exhaust gas temperature = 600 C
• Specific heat of flue gas = 0.25 kcal / kg K
• Quantity of heat available if we reduce the flue gas
temperature 600 to 300 C
Q = m Cp (T2-T1)
= 1200 kcal
• Quantity of heat required making the water into steam
• (Sensible heat + Latent heat) = 594.5 kcal / kg
•  We are able to get 2 lt of distilled water for every liter
of Diesel
 Application of Renewable energy
systems for energy conservation
Case study 2 : Solar water heater for fuel savings
 1% fuel can be saved for every 6ºC rise in temperature
of boiler feed water.
 100 LPD (Litres per day) solar water heater can rise the
temperature from 32ºC to 62ºC (ΔT = 30°C), costs
around Rs 18,000.
 5% fuel saving can be achieved with the help of solar
water heater.
 100 MW thermal power plant requires 60 tons/hr of coal
 5% of fuel saving is 3 tons/hr so Rs 9000/hr is saved.
• 8000 working hours in a year, saves Rs 7,20,00,000.
• 100 MW thermal power plant requires 10 tons/hr (2,40,000
lt/day) of feed water.
• So 2400 Nos of 100 LPD solar water heater is needed for 100
MW thermal power plant which can rise the boiler feed water to
62°C.
• Initial investment for 2400 nos of solar water heater is
Rs.4,32,00,000.
• Payout time is less than one year. (4,32,00,000 / 7,20,00,000).
• Life of the solar water heater is 10 yrs.
• The energy conservation method could be thought of wherever
there is a demand for process heat.
Optimum Utilization of Heat and
Power
 Waste Heat Recovery

• Waste heat is defined as the heat rejected from a process

which is sufficiently at a higher temperature than the
ambient temperature.
• Waste heat could include exhaust steam from process
industries, heat from power plants and heat generated
from various other streams such as agricultural crops, food
process waste, waste tyres etc.
• Approximately two-thirds of industrial energy is used in
process steam and heat, and this is in the form of thermal
energy, rather than in the form of power. Consequently,
the opportunities for waste heat recovery are plentiful.
• However in establishing the opportunities, process
energy requirements and waste streams technology of
recovery need to be evaluated. Their costs and energy
savings are vital to the determination of the economic
viability of waste heat recovery.
• Three temperature ranges are used to classify waste
heat.
 The high temperature range - above 1200°F
 The medium temperature range - between 450°F and
1200°F
 The low temperature range - below 450°F
 Waste Heat Recovery
Sources of waste heat
• High temperature waste heat
- Aluminium refining furnace, cement kiln, solid waste
incinerators
• Medium temperature waste heat
- Steam boiler exhausts, gas turbine exhausts, heating
furnaces
• Low temperature waste heat
- Cooling water from internal combustion engines, process
steam condensate
There are two basic ways to recover heat from the sources:
o Using heat exchangers to transfer heat in one fluid stream
to another.
e.g. from flue gas to feed water (economizer) or
combustion air (air preheater).
o Waste heat boilers to produce steam.
 Combined Heat and Power
• Scheme which combines electrical power generation
with utilization of heat for space heating and / or specific
industrial process.
• The maximum efficiency of the thermal power plant is
30-40%.
• The application of the Carnot principle to any heat
engine cycle shows that however efficient the cycle may
be, the maximum efficiency is given by
carnot = 1-(T2/T1)
T1 = Maximum temperature available (e.g. the
metallurgical limit)
T2 = Lowest temperature available
• In a steam power plant, if the heat rejected in the
condenser were utilized the overall efficiency would be
increased to about 75-80%.
• The existing power plants, scope for use the heat
rejected from the condenser is limited-the reason.
– The temperature of heat rejection is low (Lower
grade Heat)
– Power stations are far away from the recipients of
thermal energy
 Benefits of CHP

• Local generation of electricity

• Improvement in national energy efficiency and
preservation of non-renewable energy sources
• Cogeneration
• Employment opportunities
Energy Management and Energy
Audit
 Energy Management & Audit

Energy Management can be divided into 3 process

• Analysis, Action & Monitoring
• Energy Audit is a part of the Action step. An
energy audit is the collection and analysis of
data on present energy use, the choice of
energy management objectives and of specific
measures to meet these objectives and the
process used to monitor progress towards these
objectives
• To convert data into information
 ENERGY MANAGEMENT

....INVOLVES A COMBINATION OF

- MANAGERIAL

&

- TECHNICAL/TECHNOLOGICAL
- SKILLS/KNOWLEDGE
 GLOBAL/NATIONAL BENEFITS
• immediate results
• lower power plant capacity
• reduced load shedding
• reduced energy imports
• lower foreign exchange needs
• use of local equipment
• job creation
• lower inflation
• reduced emissions/pollution
• conservation of scarce/limited resources
 GLOBAL ISSUES
• ENERGY USE

• ENVIRONMENTAL DAMAGE

• NUCLEAR SAFETY/HEALTH

• SO2, NO - ACID RAIN, OZONE DEPLETION

• CO2 - GREENHOUSE EFFECT.

 BARRIERS/OBSTACLES TO
MANAGEMENT OF ENERGY
• Artificially low energy prices.
• Little energy consciousness.
• Higher priority to “more important” issues (eg., keep plant
running).
• Automation seen as more important than energy cost
management, in plant modernisation of plant.
• Lack of energy management expertise
• Lack of knowledge of own energy consumption
patterns/costs/ potential for saving
 BARRIERS/OBSTACLES TO MANAGEMENT
OF ENERGY
• Old, high-energy plant.
• Lack of capital.
• Other investment priorities.
• Local energy infrastructure may not encourage energy
saving.
• Apathy on the part of managers and staff.
• Lack of awareness of energy engineers,
technological possibilities, and economics.
 ENERGY MANAGEMENT
The objective of Energy Management is to achieve and
maintain optimum energy procurement and utilisation,
throughout the organisation:

- To minimise energy costs/waste...

- Without affecting production.

- To minimise environmental effects.

ENERGY MANAGEMENT INVOLVES
FOUR MANAGERIAL FUNCTIONS

... PLANNING

... LEADING

... ORGANISING

... CONTROLLING
 THE TOTAL ENERGY MANAGEMENT
PROCESS
Awareness of
Potential Savings

Top Management Commitment

Preliminary Energy Audit

Detailed Energy Audit

Implement No-Cost/
Low-Cost Measures

Feasibility Studies
-Capital Intensive Projects
Training Monitor

Implement
Higher-Cost
Measures
 Conducting An Energy Audit
OUTLINE

 Initiating an Energy Management Program

 Goals of the Energy Audit
 Energy Bills
 Steps in the On-Site Energy Audit
 Degree Days, Layout, Operating Hours
 Equipment List
 Systems to Consider
 Energy Audit Report
 Starting an Energy Management
Program
Conduct an energy audit

An energy audit (or energy survey) is:

A study of how energy is used in a facility

and an analysis of what alternatives could
be used to reduce energy costs
improve profits
 Goals of the Energy Audit are to:

Clearly identify types and costs of energy use

Understand how that energy is being used – and
possibly wasted
Identify and analyze more cost-effective ways of
using energy
- improved operational techniques
- new equipment

Perform an economic analysis on those

alternatives and determine which are cost-
effective for your business or industry
 Steps in the On-site Energy Audit

1. Identify layout and operating schedule for facility.

Make a plan or sketch of the building(s) which shows

building size, room sizes, window areas, and wall and
roof composition and insulation (offices, prod, maint,…)

2. Compile an equipment inventory.

List all energy consuming equipment, with hours of use

each year and energy ratings or efficiencies.
Steps in the On-site Energy Audit

3. Determine the pattern of building use to show

annual needs for heating, cooling, & lighting.

4. Conduct a room-by room lighting inventory

- light fixtures
- lamp types, sizes and numbers
- levels of illumination
- uses of task lighting
 Responsibilities and Duties of Energy Auditor

• Carry out a detailed energy audit

• Quantify energy consumption and establish base line
energy information
• Construct energy and material balance
• Perform efficiency evaluation of energy & utility systems
• Compare energy norms with existing energy
consumption levels
• Identify and prioritization of energy saving measures
• Analyse technical and financial feasibility of energy
saving measures
• Recommend energy efficient technologies and alternate
energy sources
• Report writing, presentation and follow up for
implementation
Responsibilities and Duties of Energy Manager

• Establish an energy conservation cell & prepare an

annual activity plan
• Develop and manage training programme for energy
efficiency at operating levels
• Develop integrated system of energy efficiency and
environmental improvement
• Initiate activities to improve monitoring and process
control to reduce energy costs
• Co-ordinate implementation of energy audit/efficiency
improvement projects through external agencies
• Establish / participate in information exchange with
other energy managers of the same sector through
association
• Provide information to BEE and Designated Agency of
the respective States as demanded in the Act
Industrial and Building Energy
Management
Industrial and Building Energy Management

• Optimum uses of thermal, Electrical energy in industrial

& building activities
• In industrial activities, the following is the key elements
for energy management
• The efficiency improvement
• Waste heat recovery potential
• Optimum use of steam
• Cogeneration
• Optimum thickness of insulation
• Optimum of natural lighting & ventilation
• In Building energy management, the key elements are
– Lighting
– Heating & Cooling
– Construction
Some important points in Building Energy Management
• Switch off the fans, light and TV whenever they are not
in use
• Clean the tube light for every fortnight to get a good level
of illumination
• Clean the dust settled over the fan blade to get a
designed amount of air
• Use CFL (Compact Fluorescent Lamp) – lead to energy
conservation
• CFL lamps can be used where maximum duration of
lighting is essential
• For Street lightings, CFL gives more benefit than our
incandescent lights
• If you use Electronic choke instead of regular choke in
Tube light, you can save 16% of Electricity
• Use electronic regulator instead of ordinary regulator for
fans
• Keep your refrigerator 7” away from the wall to save 7%
of electricity
• Decide the level of cooling you required for the operation
of the refrigerator to save power (Low, Medium or High
Cool)
• Choose the required size of the refrigerator in order to
avoid the power for cooling the empty space of the
refrigerator
 CFL lamp
Bulb (Watt) Lumens Amount (Rs)
(Watt)

40 8 400 215

75 14 900 235

100 18 200 400

Comparison in cost saving of CFL lamp – basis: 8 hours operation /day

40 Watt Lamp 8 Watt CFL Lamp

40 W  8 hours  30 days = 9.6 Units 8 W  8 hours  30 days = 1.92 Units

For 1 year = 115.2 Units For 1 year = 23 Units

Cost = 115.2  Rs. 2.20 = Rs. 253.44 Cost = 23.0  Rs. 2.20 = Rs. 50.60

Cost saving for one year=Rs 202.84

Payout Time = l year

Energy Management in Lighting
 Lighting
• When a metallic material becomes hot, it emits radiation.
This happens in an incandescent bulb when it is
switched on. The thin filament is heated to such a high
temperature by the electrical energy fed into it that it
begins to glow and emit radiation. Some of the radiation
is invisible (heat radiation) and some visible (light)

Sources of light:
• Light source can be classified as
• Natural light – Varies constantly with changing
metrological conditions, time of the day, seasons and
specific location on earth
– Sunlight – light received directly from the sun
– Skylight – scattered light received from other
luminous parts of the sky
Artificial light
• Flame based – they evolved from firelight, oil
lamps, modern kerosene, gas lamps, candles
etc.,
• Electrical light – incandescent and discharge
lamps
 Light and Energy
– A source of light needs energy, either electrical or
heat
– Input to lighting – for the flame based systems it is
necessary to know the net heating value and rate of
consumption of the fuels used or for electrical lighting
systems, the power ratings of the lamps
– Output energy – it is also possible to measure the
quantity of energy that is contained in the output of
lighting system, i.e., in the light
– It is possible to measure how the emitted energy of a
100W incandescent lamp is distributed over the
radiation spectrum
– These measurements take the spectral sensitivity of
the eye in to account
- Total light energy emitted by a 100W bulb is 1700
lumen, which is only a fraction of the 10W energy in the
visible range. This quantity is called by definition the
luminous flux
UV Visible Infrared

Energy

0 0.4 0.8 1 2 3 4

Wave length (micrometers)

 Photometric Quantities

Illuminance - unit Lux (lx)

• The luminous flux falling on unit area of a surface and is
expressed in lux
• Office desk - 300/500 lx
• Corridor - 100/500 lx
• Classroom - 300 lx
• Restroom - 150 lx
• Living room - 50/300 lx
• Bedroom - 50 lx
Luminous intensity – unit candela (cd)
The luminous flux per unit of solid angle in a given direction
Luminous flux – unit lumen (lm)
• Total amount of light emitted by a source or received by a
surface
• Candle – 5 lm
• 100W incandescent lamp – 1700 lm
• 60W fluorescent lamp – 3600 lm
Luminance – unit (cd/m2)
• Express how bright the source appears
Luminous efficacy – unit (lm/W)
• It is the energy to light conversion
• In incandescent bulb, it gives 17 lm/W (i.e., 1700 lm/100W)
Average illuminance on an area:
• It is expressed as,
E = lu/s
where, E – Average illuminance (lx)
lu – Average luminous flux (lm)
s – Surface area (m2)
Illuminance at a point:
• The illuminance at a point can be
calculated easily when the size of the
source is small compared with its distance
from the surface
 E point = (Li / d2)  cosine b
where
• E point – illuminance at a point (lx)
• Li – luminous intensity (cd)
• d – distance between the source of light and the point
(m)
• b – angle between the beam and a line perpendicular to
plane of the surface
Spot light

b
Epoint
 Colour and Colorimetry
• A distinction is made between the colour temperature of
a light source when you look at the light itself and the
colour rendering that it gives to surface when it shines
onto them
• The colour-rendering index expresses how a light source
compares with natural light or daylight in its ability to
make objects appear to their natural colours. Put more
precisely, it is a measure of the degree to which the
colour of surfaces illuminated by a given light source
confirm to those of the same surfaces under a reference
light. Some form of daylight is taken as the reference
source
• Perfect agreement between the source being judged and
the reference source is given a value of 100
CIE colour rendering % Typical applications Example of lamps
90 (Good) Accurate colour matching Incandescent lamps
80-90 (Good) Accurate colour judgment Fluorescent tubes (with
or good colour rendering triphosphor fluorescent
for reasons of appearance coating)
60-80 (Medium) Moderate colour Standard Fluorescent
rendering tubes
40-60 (Medium) Little significant colour High-Pressure mercury
rendering, but marked lamps
distortions of colours
unacceptable
20-40(Poor) Colour rendering not Low-Pressure sodium
important and colour lamps.
distortion acceptable
 Illuminance for different purposes

• The following table gives the scale of

illuminance recommended by CIE for use in
working interiors:
• These standards illuminances are based on
consideration of the performance of the
respective tasks, the comfort of people doing the
tasks, and the time, which the space is occupied
 Comparison of lighting systems
Type of Energy Rate of Total Luminous Luminous Color Equivalent
light source source consumption power flux efficacy rendering number of
lamps(*)

W lm lm/W

Candle Wax 5.50 g/h 55 1 0.02 Good 75

7.20 g/h 72 16 0.22

Kerosene Kerosene 0.02 l/h 200 10 0.05 Good 12

lantern
0.05 l/h 488 100 0.25

Pressure Kerosene 0.06 l/h 563 220 0.39 Poor 1

lamp
0.08 l/h 813 1300 1.60

Gas lamp LPG 28 l/h 350 330 0.94 Poor 1

34 l/h 425 1000 2.35

Biogas lamp Biogas 0.10 m3/h 639 330 0.48 Poor 1

0.20 m3/h 1385 1300 0.94

 Examples of electrical lamps
Incandescent Electrical 100W 100 1200 12 Good 1
lamp

Halogen lamp Electrical 25W 25 500 20 Good 2

Fluorescent Electrical 13W 13 585 45 Good 2

tube

(*) – The equivalent number of lamps is the number of lamps required to

produce the same luminous flux as the reference of 100W incandescent
electrical bulb (i.e. 1200 lm)