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forming
Introduction
• Metal forming includes a large group of manufacturing
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• Metal forming processes can be classified into two
basic categories:
bulk deformation processes and
FIGURE 2.1 Basic bulk deformation processes: (a) rolling, (b) forging, (c) extrusion,
and (d) drawing.
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• Sheet metal working or press working is the term often
applied to sheet metal operations because the press
machines used to perform these operations
• A part produced in a sheet metal operation is often called
a stamping.
• Sheet metal operations are always performed as cold
working processes and are usually accomplished using a
set of tools called a punch and die.
• The punch is the positive portion and the die is the
negative portion of the tool set. The basic sheet metal
operations are sketched in Figure 2.2.
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FIGURE 2.2 Basic sheet metalworking operations: (a) bending,
(b) drawing, and (c) shearing: (1) as punch first contacts sheet,
and (2) after cutting. Force and relative motion in these
operations are indicated by F and v.
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Mechanics of metal working
Metal working occurs due to plastic deformation
which is associated with analysis of complex stress
distribution.
require simplification.
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Example: Determine the engineering strain, true strain,
and reduction for (a) a bar which is doubled in length
and (b) a bar which is halved in length.
Solution:
(a) For a bar which is double
in length, L2 = 2L1
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• In the forming process we are more interested in the plastic
deformation region
Plastic
deformation
region
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• The stress-strain relationship in the plastic deformation region is described by
Called FLOW
K
CURVE
n
Where
K= the strength coefficient, (MPa)
= the true strain, σ=the true stress
n= the strain hardening exponent,
The flow stress (Yf ) is used for the above stress (which is the stress
beyond yield)
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• As deformation occurs, increasing STRESS is required to
continue deformation (shown in curve)
Yf K n
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AVERAGE FLOW STRESS
• For many bulk deforming processes, rather than instantaneous stress, average
stress is used (extrusion)
• The average flow stress can be obtained by integrating the flow stress along the
trajectory of straining, from zero to the final strain value defining the range of
interest
Strength
k n Coefficient
Average flow Yf Max. strain during
deformation
stress
1 n
Strain hardening
exponent
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Hot working
Hot working involves deformation at temperatures
where recrystallization can occur (0.6-0.8 Tm).
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Effects of temperature on metal forming
processes
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Cold working
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The extent of deformation is rather limited if cracks
are to be avoid, therefore intermediate anneals that
enable recrystallization are frequently used afterwards.
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Advantages and disadvantages of
cold working
Advantages
Provide work hardening, materials are stronger.
Provide fine grain size and good surface finish.
Dimension tolerance is better than in hot working.
Easier handling (low operating temperatures).
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Disdvantages
Use high amount of deformation due to low operating
temperatures, therefore, require soft materials.
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Bulk deformation processes
1. Rolling
Rolling is a deformation process in which the thickness
of the work is reduced by compressive forces exerted by
two opposing rolls.
The rolls rotate as illustrated in Figure 2.3 to pull and
simultaneously squeeze the work between them.
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Types of Rolling
1. By geometric considerations :
Flat rolling - used to reduce thickness of a rectangular
cross-section
Shape rolling - a square cross-section is formed into a
shape such as an I-beam, rails, channels,etc.
2. By the temperature of work:
Hot Rolling –is a rolling operation carried out at a
temperature just below the metal melting point(above
the recrystallization temperature), permitting large
amount of deformation.
Cold rolling – is a rolling operation carried out below
recrystallization temperature. Cold rolling is commonly
conducted after hot rolling when good surface quality and
low thickness tolerance are needed. Cold rolling causes
material strengthening.
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fig Flat and Shape Rolling Processes
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Terminology
Bloom: is the product of first breakdown of ingot
(150x150 to 150x300mm) rolled into structural shapes
(I-beams, rails).
Billet: is the product obtained from a further reduction
by hot rolling (50x50 to 125x125mm) rolled into bars,
rods, pipes, wires.
Slab: is the hot rolled ingot (600 to 1500mm wide to
150mm thick) rolled into sheets, plates,& welded pipes.
Plate: is the product with a thickness > 6 mm.
Sheet: is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width
> 600 mm.
Strip: is the product with a thickness < 6 mm and width
< 600 mm.
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Rolling mills
Rolling mill is a machine or a factory for shaping metal
by passing it through rolls
rolls
bearings
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In cluster (Sendzimir) mill……….cont.
The thinner the strip to be rolled, the smaller is the required
roll diameter.
If a four-high rolling mill is used with working rolls of very
small diameter and too large backup rolls (say more than
twice the diameter of the working rolls), the working rolls
may start to deflect horizontally.
To prevent the horizontal deflection the cluster, rolling mills
were introduced, using working rolls of very small diameter
with a train of supporting rolls of progressively increasing
diameter.
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Each roll is supported by two larger-diameter rolls.
Thus the working roll is supported by two rolls, while
the two support rolls are supported in turn by three
backup rolls, as Fig. 2.2 shows. The mill of Fig. 2.2 is
called a 1-2-3 cluster rolling mill.
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Figure 2.4 cluster (Sendzimir) mill.
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f) Tandem Rolling Mills.
After the blooming mill has reduced the ingot into a plate,
many more rolling passes may be required before the strip
reaches the required thinness.
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The strip will be moving at different velocities at each stage
in the mill.
The speed of each set of rolls is synchronized so that the
input speed of each stand is equal to the output speed of
preceding stand.
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The overall reduction is the summation of a series of
small reductions by each pair of rolls. Therefore, the
planetary mill can hot reduces a slab directly to strip in
one pass through the mill.
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figure 2.6 Planetary rolling mills.
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Arc of contact: The arc along which the roll is in
contact with the strip is called the arc of contact.
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Simplified analysis of rolling load
The main variables in rolling are:
• The roll diameter.
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We have
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Torque and power
Torque is the measure of the force applied to a member to produce
rotational motion.
Remarks: Losses in the windup reel and uncoiler must also be considered.
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Examples
1. A strip with a cross section of 150mmx 6mm is being
cold rolled with 20% reduction of thickness, using
400mm diameter steel rolls. If the average uniaxial
yield stress is 325MPa and the rolls rotate at 24 rpm,
calculate.
a. final strip thickness,
b. angle of bite,
c. projected length of arc of contact,
d. rolling load,
e. torque
f. power required and
g. the minimum exit thickness of the strip that can be
produced. Assume coefft. of friction to be 0.1.
h. what is the minimum value of μ required for rolling to
occur in this case ?
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2. Determine the maximum possible draft for cold
rolling a 300mm thick slab when μ=0.08 and the roll
diameter is 600mm. What is the maximum draft on
the same mill for hot rolling when μ =0.5.
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4. Calculate the rolling load if steel is hot rolled with 30 percent reduction in
thickness from a 40mm thick and 760mm wide plate using 900mm-
diameter rolls. Assume no change in width and μ = 0.3. The mean uniaxial
flow stress of steel under these conditions is given by σ = 200 ε 0.2 (MPa)
where ε is strain rate in per sec. If the rolls rotate at 65rpm, what are the
torque and power required for this rolling?
5. The thickness of a 600mm wide steel sheet is reduced from 4mm to 3.5mm
with 500mm diameter rolls having a coefft. of friction equal to 0.05. The
mean flow stress in uniaxial tension is 205 MPa.
a. Calculate the rolling load.
b. If the rolls rotate at 150 rpm, what are the torque and power?
At h = 62 mm,
FIGURE : Comparison of metal grain flow in a part that is: (a) hot
forged with finish machining, and (b) machined complete.
Flashless forging
Forging Hammers
Forging hammers operate by applying an impact loading
against the work.
The term drop hammer is often used for these machines,
owing to the means of delivering impact energy (see Figures
below).
FIGURE: Drop forging hammer,
FIGURE : Diagram showing details of a drop hammer for
impression-die forging.
Types of Extrusion