1.

Cartographic jobs are done much faster and accurately than those
undertaken using conventional methods.
2. Data is stored electronically and is more convenient than files of
conventional compilation procedures. It can easily be recalled later
for plotting in total or in part.
3. Maps can be stored at one scale and may be changed to much
larger or smaller scales when needed.
4.Errors and mistakes are reduced or eliminated since cartographic
work is performed by machines.
5. It enables the cartographer to concentrate on creative
cartography and simplifies updating and revision of maps.
Symbols for Vegetation
Symbols for Bodies of Water
Symbols for Related Features
Symbols for Boundaries
Symbols for Road/Railroads
 HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYING

- is the process involved in gathering

information concerning any body of water
and its adjacent land areas
 IT IS CONDUCTED FOR THE FOLLOWING
PURPOSES:
1. To provide data for the preparation of hydrographic maps and
nautical charts needed in navigation, harbor improvement, and
dredging projects;
2. For flood control, water supply , hydro-electric power
development, pipeline irrigation and underground cable
crossings;
3. To obtain information needed in the design of bridges, dams,
culverts, sewage disposal plants, lighthouses and other structures;
4. To gather data needed for the establishment of tidal datums;
5. To determine volume of impounded water, direction and
velocity of currents, drainage areas and capacity of containing
basin; and
6. To locate navigational hazards such as submerged
obstructions, sunken vessels, rocks, shoal and coral reefs.
 TERMINOLOGY
•Hydrology - the study, description, and mapping of oceans,
seas, lakes and rivers especially with reference to their
navigational, commercial and other uses
• Sounding – the process of measuring depths of a body of water
at a particular point
•Stream Gaging – process of making measurements in streams
and rivers for the purpose of predicting rate of discharge at
various water levels or stages
•Fathom – is unit of depth measurement equivalent to 6 ft or
1.829m.
•Hydrographic Chart – similar to a topographic map except that
water depths, navigational markers and underwater surface
characters are indicated.
•Tidal Datum – specific tide levels used as surface of reference for
depth measurements, and used as a base for determination of
elevation on land
•Discharge – the volume of water flowing past a cross section of a
stream, canal, flume and waterways in cu.m. Per sec.
•Dredging - the process of scooping or sucking up mud, sand,
rocks and other material underwater for enlarging, deepening or
clearing channels, harbors, rivers and other bodies of water
•Stream – a current or steady flow of water running along the
earth’s surface
•Sub-aqueous Contours- are imaginary line on the surface of the
earth found underwater; also known as depth curves or
bathymetric contours.
BASIC OPERATIONS INVOLVED IN HYDROGRAPHIC SURVEYS

1. Reconnaisance - preliminary step using aerial photographs or previously

prepared maps and charts
2. Establishment of Horizontal Control – establishment of the framework by
which land and water features are held in their true relationship to each other.
3. Establishment of Vertical Control – vertical control are defined so that
elevation or stage of water surface can be correctly referenced.
4. Topographic Survey – is performed to include prominent landmarks which
can be used for referencing positions.
5. Hydrography – measurement of water depths and establishing their
respective locations.
6.Preparation of hydrographic maps – the final product of the process; with
end result of calculating water volume, amount of dredged material,
discharge of stream and fluctuations of water level
 EQUIPMENT FOR HYDROGRAPHY
1. Sounding Craft – includes row boats, motor launches and small vessels or fishing vessels
which are seaworthy and have reliable motor performance.
2. Sounding Pole – used for taking soundings, suitable to use when water depth doe not
exceed 2.5 m.
3. Leadline – also called sounding line is usually a length of sash or hemp cord or nylon cord
with a sounding lead attached to one end, used for depths greater than 25 fathoms. The
lead is lowered until the it touches the bottom and until the line is vertical and taut, depths
are determined from the markings on the leadline.
4. Sounding Machine – used when water depth is too great; a device where a piano or
stranded wire is used and wound on a reel mounted on a stand and a lead anchor is used.
5. Fathometer – a measuring device automatically records soundings taken on a moving
vessel; records the time required for a sound wave to reach the bottom and for the echo
wave to come back.
6. Signals – must be sufficiently conspicuous and readily distinguished; on- shore they maybe
lighthouses, chimneys, flagpoles, water tanks, towers and other prominent structures.
7. Tide Gage – records the variations in tide height at periodic intervals.
8. Sextant – a portable and hand-held instrument used for measuring vertical and horizontal
angles
 COMPOSITION OF SOUNDING PARTY
1. CHIEF OF PARTY - directs all survey operations, responsible for accurate gathering of
required survey data; responsible for the safety and care of boat personnel and
equipment used
2. INSTRUMENTMAN – responsible for setting up different survey instruments; supervises the
work of the recorder; assists the COP; and may also act as look-out if needed
3. RECORDER – records, tabulates all survey data gathered; repeats clearly all measurements,
colors of flags used, times and all other data called out to him
4. LEADSMAN – handles the leadline or sounding rod; calls off measured depths; may also
serve as look-out
5. COXSWAIN –responsible for steering the boat; operates machine and sees to it that the
right cruising speed is attained; alert for instructions from COP to change course.
6. LOOKOUT- stationed at the most suitable elevated position in the boat; keeps watch of the
surrounding water for shoals, reefs, floating objects and other hazards that may cause
possible danger to the vessel and the crew.
7. SIGNALMAN – alerts the party that sounding is about to begin; equipped with different
flags which he raises and waves; may also use two-way radio.
8. FATHOMETER ATTENDANT – employed when surveys are done on deep waters.
 LOCATING SOUNDINGS
RANGE LINES - are well defined lines or courses whose positions are
known and along which soundings are taken

The basic element of hydrographic survey is defined by the

implemented sounding operation. It is important therefore to know
the accurate location of the point at which depths were measured.
This is called position fixing. The methods used are the following:
1. TIME INTERVAL ALONG A RANGE LINE
2. RANGE LINE AND AN ANGLE FROM SHORE
3. INTERSECTING RANGE LINES
4. ONE ANGLE AND STADIA DISTANCE FROM SHORE
5. TWO ANGLES FROM SHORE
6. TWO ANGLES FROM BOATDISTANCES ALONG A CROSS ROPE OR WIRE
7. DIRECTION AND VERTICAL ANGLE
 RESERVOIR SEDIMENTATION SURVEYS
*The construction of dams and reservoirs require extensive topographic and hydrographic
surveys. A survey is made of reservoir site to determine its capacity at various stages of the
water surface
• Series of soundings are taken at the site in order to plot the reservoir map.
• The map portrays underwater or depth contour of the reservoir.
• A planimeter is commonly used to determine areas within successive contour lines.
• The volume between adjacent contours is computed as the average of tqo enclosed
areas multiplied by the contour interval.
• The cumulative sum of such partial volumes when plotted against pool elevation defines the
stage-capacity curve.
• Storage volume is expressed in hectare-meter, or the volume of water required to cover a
hectare with a depth of 1 meter.
• It is important to determine extent of sedimentation and loss of capacity of a reservoir to
predict its possible useful life.
• Hydrographic surveys must be regularly performed
Instruments for Measuring Stream Velocity

1. FLOATS
2.
a. Surface Floats- usually made of lightweight or hollow material in different shapes
and resistant to floating debris, ripples, current and wind; may use improvised
bottles, blocks of wood, jugs or driftwood; velocity is measured by timing the travel
of surface floats at various locations along a stream through a measured distance.

b. Subsurface Floats usually in the form of double float; consists of underwater

device made of wood or metal attached to a surface float by a line or chain;
unsuitable for use in small and shallow streams.

c. Rod floats – made out of a wooden rod or metal tube; weighted at the bottom to
allow it to float vertically upright with only a short length exposed above the surface;
designed to measure directly mean velocity in the verticals.
CURRENT METERS
-are instruments used for the indirect measurement of velocity in streams. It
consists essentially of a wheel with cups or vanes so constructed that the
impact of flowing water causes the wheel to revolve.

-The meter is positioned at a selected depth in a stream and the number of

revolutions of the wheel in a time interval are determined and converted to
velocity of flow.

-Current meters are lowered into the water either from a boat, bridge, cable
system or by wading

- The instrument is suspended by a rope, wire or jointed tube, and the weight of
the device is balanced by a tail which keeps the instrument facing the current.
METHODS OF DETERMINING MEAN VELOCITY
The velocity of water is not uniform over a cross section. It
usually increases from the bank toward the center of the stream
and varies from the surface to the bed. It is difficult to predict
variation from the bank towards the center of the stream. These
velocity variations can only be determined by dividing the cross
section into a convenient number of subdivisions. Velocity
variations from surface to the bed is however consistent and
more easily determined.
The mean velocity in a vertical section of a stream is determined
by applying any of the methods below:

A. VERTICAL-VELOCITY CURVE METHOD

Procedure: A series of velocity measurements are obtained at
points well distributed between the saurface and bottom of a
stream along a straight line, usually at each tenth of the depth
from surface to bottom. Using suitable scale, depths are
plotted as ordinates and measured velocities as abscissas.

B. Two-Point Method
Procedure: The velocity of the stream is observed at two-tenths
and eight tenths of the depth below water surface in the
vertical. The average of the two observations give mean
velocity in the vertical; should not be used to depths less than
0.6m.
C. Single Point Method

Procedure: the current meter id positioned at the depth for

which the expected thread of of mean velocity has been
determined. The mean velocity is taken by immersing the
current meter to six tenths of the vertical’s depth

D. Integration Method

Procedure: The current meter is lowered slowly and at a

uniform rate along the vertical from the water surface to the
stream bed and raised back to the surface. The number of
revolutions of the meter wheel during the cycle is timed and
converted to its equivalent velocity.
MEASUREMENT OF STREAM DISCHARGE

1. VELOCITY – AREA METHOD

2. STREAM- AREA METHOD

3. WEIR METHOD

WAYS TO DETERMINE CAPACITY OF LAKES AND RESERVOIRS

1. CROSS SECTION METHOD

2. CONTOUR METHOD
ASTRONOMICAL OBSERVATIONS
THE CELESTIAL SPHERE
- for purposes of surveying, an assumption is made that the
stars and other heavenly bodies are all fixed within a gigantic
sphere with infinite radius whose center is the earth. Its equator
is on the projection of the earth’s equator, and with respect to
the earth, the celestial sphere rotates from east to west about
a line which coincides with the earth’s axis. The speed of
rotation of the celestial sphere is 360° 59.14’ per 24 hours, thus
making slightly more than 1 rev/day.
In surveying, the interest is basically with respect to the sides and
angles of spherical triangles on the celestial sphere. Engineers
and surveyors are concerned with observations of latitude,
longitude and azimuths. The observations are more on the
determination of angular relations which are measured on
earth between celestial bodies or between some poonts on
earth and the celestial body being observed
In surveying, the use of true or astronomical directions has several
advantages over the use of assumed or magnetic meridian.

a. Permanence is given to the direction of boundaries of land;

b. Astronomical directions are useful for correlating surveys,

checking angles of traverse and in orienting important maps;

c. True directions may be obtained by sighting on the sun or on

one of the stars.
POLARIS - is circumpolar star that rotates very close to the
celestial North pole, and of important significance to
engineers and surveyors.

EPHEMERIS – is an astronomical almanac containing tables giving

the computed positions of the sun, the planets and various
stars for every day of a given period
PARALLELS AND MERIDIANS

PARALLEL - is a line formed by passing a series of imaginary

planes perpendicular to the axis of the earth. They are used to
express distances of points above or below the equator,
numbered from 0° to 90° North and South of the equator, the
equator being the 0° parallel. The term latitude is used instead
of parallel

MERIDIAN – is a line formed by passing a series of imaginary

planes through the earth’s poles, are numbered from 0° to 180°
eastward as well as westward. The meridian which passes
through/near Greenwich, England is the 0° meridian also
known as the prime meridian. Longitudes are generallt used to
express meridian distances.
 LONGITUDE AND TIME
The sun apparently makes one complete revolution about
the earth in one solar day and in one hour the sun apparently
traverses 15° of longitude. When one travels from west to east,
time advances one hour for each 15° of longitude. An east to
west traveler sets a watch back one hour each time 15° of
longitude is traversed.