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Definisi Umum

• Meteorologi : Ilmu yang mempelajari


atmosfer dengan berbagai fenomena di
dalamnya, terutama yang terkait dengan
proses-proses cuaca dan iklim.
• Cuaca : keadaan atmosfer yang pengaruhnya
dapat dirasakan saat ini  parameter cuaca
: temperatur, tekanan udara, kecepatan
angin, curah hujan, dsb.
• Iklim : kondisi rata-rata atmosfer dalam
jangka panjang; merupakan hasil interaksi
seluruh komponen Bumi (atmosfer,
hidrosfer, biosfer, humanosfer, litosfer dan
kriosfer)

• Perubahan Iklim: perubahan kondisi rata-


rata cuaca, perubahan distribusis statistik
pola cuaca
Humanosfer
Composition and Structure of the
Atmosphere
1. Composition
a. The atmosphere
b. Permanent gases
c. Variable gases

2. Vertical
Structure
a. Temperature
b. Electrical properties
4
c. Function
1. Composition – of what?
≈ 100 km

≈ 12 km thunder heads 

Where does Earth’s atmosphere end?


100 km  99.99997%
2% of Earth’s thickness 5

Photo from NASA: http://eobadmin.gsfc.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17542


1. Composition – components cycle

Steady State

Physical Processes:
• chemical reactions

output rate
• volcanic eruptions
input rate

Biological Processes:
• photosynthesis
• respiration
• human activity
Residence time = length of time an individual
molecule remains in the atmosphere 6

Photo from NASA: http://eobadmin.gsfc.nasa.gov/Newsroom/NewImages/images.php3?img_id=17542


1. Composition (and some structure)
Permanent Gases (homosphere: 0-80 km alt.)

Aguado and Burt, Table 1-2.


1. Composition (and some structure)

Variable Gases (heterosphere: > 80 km alt.)

Methane CH4 0.00017 76.01

 Low abundance, but very important

Aguado and Burt, Table 1-3, with Methane added.


1. Composition
Water Vapor
 Gas molecules (not liquid), source for cloud formation
 Radiative forcing = ++
 Created by evaporation
 Removed by precipitation
 Residence time = 10 days
clouds water vapor

Tropical
Storm
Gustav

9
http://wwwghcc.msfc.nasa.gov/GOES/goeseastconuswv.html - 1 September, 2008
1. Composition

Carbon Dioxide
 Radiative forcing = +
 Input: respiration,
organic decay, volcanic
eruptions, anthropogenic
activity
 Uptake: photosynthesis
 Residence time =
150 yr

From the Mauna Loa Observatory: http://www.mlo.noaa.gov/home.html


1. Composition

Methane
 Radiative Forcing = +
 Input: wetlands, termites,
anthropogenic activity
 Uptake: soils,
Atmosphere
 Residence time =
10 yr

http://www.esrl.noaa.gov/gmd/ccgg/iadv/
1. Composition
Ozone
 Radiative Forcing = +
(nearby), − (up high)

 Input: chemical
reactions involving
ultraviolet radiation
 Destroyed via
chlorine-containing
compounds -
chlorofluorocarbons
http://www.epa.gov/air/oaqps/gooduphigh/
Composition and Structure of the
Atmosphere
1. Composition
a. Permanent gases
b. Variable gases

2. Vertical
Structure
a. Density
b. Temperature
c. Electrical properties
13
d. Function
2. Vertical Structure – via density
Density = mass per unit volume
density (kg / m3)

Aguado and Burt Fig. 1-8. Because air is


compressible and subjected to greater
compression at lower elevations, the
density of the air at lower levels is greater
than that aloft.

Mean free path =


average distance traveled before colliding with another 14
molecule. e.g. 0.0001 mm at 0 km asl vs. 1 km at 250 km asl
2. Vertical Structure – via temp.
Why temperature?
 temperature impacts how easily air moves vertically

Standard Atmosphere =
models defining atmospheric variables as a function of
altitude, for a given set of mean conditions at sea
level

For example, the U.S. definition of “standard atmosphere” is described or defined in the following web sites:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Standard_Atmosphere 15
http://modelweb.gsfc.nasa.gov/atmos/us_standard.html
Layers in the ISAStandard Atmosphere 1976

Base Base
Base
Geopotential Geometric Lapse
Level Base Atmospheric
Layer Altitude above Altitude Rate
Name Temperature Pressure
MSL[5] above MSL[5] (in
T (in °C) p (in Pa)
h (in km) z (in km) °C/km)

0 Troposphere 0.0 0.0 −6.5 +15.0 101325

1 Tropopause 11.000 11.019 +0.0 −56.5 22632

2 Stratosphere 20.000 20.063 +1.0 −56.5 5474.9

3 Stratosphere 32.000 32.162 +2.8 −44.5 868.02

4 Stratopause 47.000 47.350 +0.0 −2.5 110.91

5 Mesosphere 51.000 51.413 −2.8 −2.5 66.939

6 Mesosphere 71.000 71.802 −2.0 −58.5 3.9564

7 Mesopause 84.852 86.000 — −86.28 0.3734


2. Vertical Structure – via temp.
Thermosphere (“thermos” = heat)
 T increases with alt., to > 1500°C
 little heat, b/c low density
Mesosphere (“mesos” = middle)
 T decreases with alt.
 99.9% of remaining atm.
Stratosphere (“strato” = layer)
 T increases with alt., little vert. motion
 19.9% of atm.
 ozone “layer” between 20-30 km (10 ppm)
Troposphere (“tropos” = turn)
 T decreases with alt.
 80% of atm. by mass
 depth varies (8-16 km, mean 11 km) 18
2. Vertical Structure

19
2. Vertical Structure – via electrical properties
Ionosphere:
 defined by electrical properties
 reflects AM radio waves
 responsible for aurora

20
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionosphere
Solar Activity Variations
2. Vertical Structure – via function

Ozonosphere:
 maximum ozone
concentrations
(20-30 km)

23
Earth’s Climate System
• climate system
• electromagenetic spectrum
• Earth’s radiation budget
• albedo
• greenhouse effect
Earth’s climate system
• climate driven by “solar energy”

• climate operates to distribute solar energy across surface

electromagnetic radiation (light)

both a particle (photon) and wave

photons can have different energies (wavelengths)

high energies = shorter wavelengths


low energies = longer wavelengths
Electromagnetic spectrum
Solar Energy Distribution
Earth’s Energy Balance
1. Energy Balance and Temperature
a. Atmospheric influences on insolation: absorption,
reflection, and scattering
b. Fate of incoming solar radiation
c. Surface-atmosphere energy transfer
d. Greenhouse effect
e. Temp. distributions

28
a. Atmospheric Influences on Insolation (review)
Absorption:
 Reduces energy reaching Earth surface
Scattering:
 Rayleigh, Mie, Nonselective
 Radiation is redirected

29
C. Surface – Atmosphere Energy Transfer
Radiation Exchange:
 Earth emits radiation (longwave), almost like a
blackbody

 Most radiation (96%)


(Radiation emitted
is absorbed by the by Earth)

atmosphere
Radiation absorbed
by atm.

33
C. Surface – Atmosphere Energy Transfer

Radiation Exchange:
Selective absorption
Atmospheric “window”

(Radiation emitted
by Earth)

Radiation absorbed
by atm.

34
C. Surface – Atmosphere Energy Transfer
Radiation Exchange:
 Net loss of radiation

35
C. Surface – Atmosphere Energy Transfer
Net Radiation = absorption of insolation
+ net longwave radiation

Net radiation
for atmosphere
= 25-54 units
= -29 units

Net radiation
for surface
= 45-16 units
36
= +29 units
C. Surface – Atmosphere Energy Transfer
Surface surplus offset by transfer of sensible (8
units) and latent (21 units) heat to atmosphere.

38
C. Surface – Atmosphere Energy Transfer

Latent heat (21 units) a


bigger player than
sensible heat (8 units):

39
C. Surface – Atmosphere Energy Transfer
Latitudinal variations:
 Between 38°N and S = net energy surpluses
 Poleward of 38o = net energy deficits
 Winter hemispheres - Net energy deficits poleward of
15o

40
C. Surface – Atmosphere Energy Transfer
Latitudinal variations:
 Energy surplus at low latitudes is offset by advection (horizontal heat
movement) of heat poleward by global wind (75%) and ocean (25%)
currents

Global Sea Surface Temperatures: Climatology: 41


http://www.cpc.ncep.noaa.gov/products/GODAS/clim_movie.shtml
Energy in
If sun overhead,
get more photons
concentrated in a
smaller area...

more energy in
Earth’s spin axis is inclined, so we get seasons
Energy out is controlled by albedo
Albedo --the brightness of a surface

can be quantified:

0% albedo 100% albedo

--darkest surface --brightest surface


--all light absorbed --all light reflected
none reflected none absorbed
energy in = energy used for warming
+ energy radiated back to space

% energy used for warming =


(100 - albedo)

% energy radiated back to


space = albedo
the amount of light absorbed
High incident depends on the incident angle
angle of sunlight

Albedo of water listed as 5-10%…


these diagrams imply not always
true

Low incident angle


Energy radiated back to space:

-- reflected or scattered off of ~30% of


clouds or surface incoming

If ~30% of incoming solar energy is


reflected back to space, what does
this say about the overall average
albedo of Earth?
Can have
temperature-
albedo
feedback
But recall that atmosphere is not completely
transparent to IR light…

...this means that the IR light can’t be radiated


back to space easily

...so it becomes trapped

This leads to the Greenhouse Effect


Greenhouse Effect

Visible light from the sun passes


through the atmosphere and warms
the surface.

Heat radiated from the surface (infrared


or IR light) travels back out into space
but is absorbed or deflected back to the
surface by certain gas molecules.
Greenhouse Effect...

Trapped IR light warms the


atmosphere, which warms the surface.

Temperature goes up gradually.


Greenhouse
effect.
Only some gases contribute to the Greenhouse Effect.

• N2and O2 (the main constituents of our atmosphere) are


not greenhouse gases.

• H2O, CFCs (chloroflourocarbons), CH4, CO2 are


“greenhouse gases” and absorb IR light.

• SO2 is not a greenhouse gas. It combines with water to


form H2SO4 (sulfuric acid) droplets. These droplets reflect
incoming solar light back into space, resulting in planetary
cooling.
Greenhouse gases.

• H2O is ubiquitous; we can’t control the amount


of it in the atmosphere.

• CH4 is a fermentation product. Large amounts


could be released from ocean (ice) deposits if the
ocean warms.

• CFCs are largely man-made. International


agreements in the 1970s limited their use,
because of their harm to the ozone layer.
Greenhouse gases.

• CO2 is released by volcanoes.

• CO2 is produced by burning petroleum products


and by burning trees. This can be controlled.
Is the greenhouse effect all bad?
No!

It makes life as we know it possible on Earth.

Earth gets about 31o C of greenhouse warming.

Taverage = 15 oC now, with Greenhouse Effect.

Taverage = 15 - 31 oC = -16oC, without Greenhouse Effect.


Climates on three planets

Venus Earth Mars


avg. temp. 460 oC 15 oC Just right -55 oC

greenhouse 285 oC 31 oC 5 oC
warming

avg. temp. 175 oC - 16 oC Too cold -60 oC


with no
greenhouse
Climates on three planets

Venus Earth Mars


greenhouse 285 oC 31 oC 5 oC
warming OK with

atmosphere 96% CO2 77% N2 95% CO2


composition 3.5% N2 21% O2 2.7% N2
0.037% CO2
0.25% H2O
The Greenhouse Effect

Earth’s atmosphere absorbs incoming solar radiation and warms the planet.
Surface temperature without atmosphere: -17 C (1 F), actual: 15 C!
Greenhouse gases on the rise:
Pre-industrial Now Sources
Carbon dioxide: 280 ppm 380 ppm Organic decay; Forest fires;
Volcanoes; Burning fossil fuels;
Deforestation; Land-use change

Methane 700 ppb 1750 ppb Wetlands; Organic decay;


Termites; Natural gas & oil
extraction; Biomass burning; Rice
cultivation; Cattle; Refuse landfills

Nitrous oxide 270 ppb 310 ppb Forests; Grasslands; Oceans;


Soils; Soil cultivation; Fertilizers;
Biomass burning; Burning of fossil
fuels

CFC 0 ppt 533 ppt Refrigerators; Aerosol spray


propellants; Cleaning solvents

Ozone Unknown Varies with Created naturally by the action of


latitude and sunlight on molecular oxygen and
altitude artificially through photochemical
smog production
Carbon dioxide
Carbon dioxide is a gas at standard temperature and
pressure and exists in Earth's atmosphere in this state. It is
currently at a globally averaged concentration of
approximately 383 ppm by volume in the Earth's atmosphere,
although this varies both by location and time.
Carbon dioxide is an important greenhouse gas because it
transmits visible light but absorbs strongly in the infrared.
Carbon dioxide is produced by all animals, plants, fungi and
microorganisms during respiration and is used by plants
during photosynthesis.
It’s also generated as a byproduct of the combustion of fossil
fuels or vegetable matter, among other chemical processes.
And also as a byproduct in lime production.
Inorganic carbon dioxide is output by volcanoes and other
geothermal processes such as hot springs.
Methane
• Methane is the principal component of natural gas.
• Methane is a relatively potent greenhouse gas with a high global
warming potential.
• Methane in the atmosphere is eventually oxidized, producing carbon
dioxide and water. As a result, methane in the atmosphere has a half
life of seven years (every seven years, the amount of methane halves).
• The abundance of methane in the Earth's atmosphere in 1998 was 1745
parts per billion, up from 700 ppb in 1750.
• In addition, there is a large, but unknown, amount of methane in
methane clathrates in the ocean floors. Global warming could release
this methane, which could cause a further sharp rise in global
temperatures. Such releases of methane may have been a major factor
in previous major extinction events.
• The Earth's crust also contains huge amounts of methane. Large
amounts of methane are produced in swamps. Other sources include
mud volcanoes which are connected with deep geological faults.
Nitrous Oxide
• Nitrous oxide (also known as laughing gas) is a chemical compound
with the chemical formula N2O.
• It is used in motor racing as an oxidizer to increase the power output of
engines.
• Despite its relatively small concentration in the atmosphere (310 ppb), nitrous
oxide is the fourth largest greenhouse gas contributor to overall global
warming, behind carbon dioxide, methane and water vapour.
• Nitrous oxide is emitted by bacteria in soils and oceans, and thus has
been a part of Earth's atmosphere for aeons. Agriculture is the main
source of human-produced nitrous oxide: cultivating soil, the use of
nitrogen fertilizers, and animal waste handling can all stimulate
naturally occurring bacteria to produce more nitrous oxide.
• The livestock sector (primarily cows, chickens, and pigs) produces 65%
of human-related nitrous oxide.
• Industrial sources make up only about 20% of all anthropogenic
sources, and include the production of nylon and nitric acid, and the
burning of fossil fuel in internal combustion engines.
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs)
• Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC) are compounds containing chlorine,
fluorine and carbon only, that is they contain no hydrogen.
• They were formerly used widely in industry, for example as refrigerants,
propellants, and cleaning solvents. Their use has been regularly
prohibited by the Montreal Protocol, because of effects on the ozone
layer.
• They are also powerful greenhouse gases.
• CFC's have half-lives between 50-100 years, so their presence in the
atmosphere and reactivity with ozone is long lived. One CFC molecule
typically degrades around 10,000 ozone molecules before its removal,
but this number can sometimes be in the millions.

Ozone (O3)
Ozone is a pale blue, relatively unstable molecule made up of three oxygen atoms
Water Vapor
Water vapor is a naturally occurring greenhouse gas and accounts for
the largest percentage of the greenhouse effect, between 36% and
66%. Water vapor concentrations fluctuate regionally, but human
activity does not directly affect water vapor concentrations except at
local scales (for example, near irrigated fields).
Water vapor is special in the sense that the amount of water vapor
depends directly on the temperature.

Vapor pressure is the pressure of a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid.


Water has a tendency to evaporate to a gaseous form, and water
vapor has a tendency to condense back into liquid form. At any given
temperature, for a particular substance, there is a pressure at which
the gas of that substance is in dynamic equilibrium with its liquid or
solid forms. This is the vapor pressure of that substance at that
temperature. The air cannot hold more water vapor than is allowed by
the vapor pressure.
Clausius-Clapeyron Relation

The Clausius-Clapeyron relation gives a relationship between the saturation


vapor pressure and the temperature.
17.67T
es T   6.112e T  243.5

This equation establishes that warmer air has the potential to hold more water
vapor per unit volume. As a simple example, the air at 30 oC can hold about 3.5
times more water vapor than air at 10 oC. Current state-of-the-art climate
models predict that increasing water vapor concentrations in warmer air will
amplify the greenhouse effect created by anthropogenic greenhouse gases.
Thus water vapor acts as a strong positive feedback to the forcing provided by
greenhouse gases such as CO2.
Vapor (g) per
Temperature
Kilogram of Dry
Degrees Celsius
Air
50 88.12
40 49.81
30 27.69
20 14.85
10 7.76
0 3.84
Positive feedbacks tend to accelerate change and
make things worse…

Global temperature

+
The greenhouse effect increases More CO2 trapped in soil reservoirs is
temperature further released

More water vapor in the atmosphere

+
Greenhouse gases
Negative feedbacks tend to slow or reverse change…

Global temperature

-
Reduced rate of greenhouse gas More CO2 in the atmosphere, higher
accumulation slows global warming temperatures enhance plant growth and
CO2 uptake

-
Greenhouse gases

- The CO2 fertilization effect -


Negative feedbacks tend to slow or reverse change…

Global temperature
-

Higher temperatures increase cloud


cover and scatter more solar radiation
back to the sky.
IPCC “story lines”:

A1 family:
rapid economic growth and technology
development, world living standards
converge, global population peaks in
mid-century. A1FI: fossil fuel intensive,
A1T: Non-fossil fuels, B: fossil/non-fossil
balance.

A2 family:
Heterogeneous world with continued
population growth.

B1 family:
Like A1 but with rapid transformation to a
service and information economy, less
material intensive, with clean efficient
technologies.

B2 family:
Like A2 with emphasis on local solutions
to social and environmental
sustainability.
Source: Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

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