COGNITIVE

SCIENCE
17

Peeking Inside
The Head

Part 1

Jaime A. Pineda, Ph.D.

Imaging The Living Brain

 Computed Tomography (CT)

 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)
 Positron Emission Tomography (PET)
 Functional MRI (fMRI)
 Electroencephalography (EEG)
 Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
 CT Scans
(1970s)

 X-ray scanner rotated 1o at a

time over 180 o
 Contrast agent
 Computer reconstruction
 Horizontal sections
 Reveal structural
abnormalities, such as
cortical atrophy or lesions
caused by a stroke or
trauma.
Computerized Axial Tomography
 MRI Scans
(1980s)
 A strong magnetic field (10-
30k X) causes hydrogen
atoms to align in the same
orientation.
 When a radio frequency wave
is passed through the head,
atomic nuclei emit
electromagnetic energy
(NMR) as they “relax”.
 The MRI scanner is tuned to
detect radiation emitted from
the hydrogen molecules.
 Different types of tissue
produce different RF signals
 Computer reconstructs image.
MRI vs. CT Scans

 Advantages of MRI
– No ionizing radiation exposure
– Better spatial resolution
– Horizontal, Frontal or Sagittal planes
 Disadvantages
– Cost
– No metal!
– noisier
Hemodynamic Techniques

 Oxygen and glucose are supplied by the blood as

fuel for the brain
 The brain does not store fuel, so
 Blood supply changes as needs arise
 Changes are regionally-specific – following the local
dynamics of neuronal activity within that region
 These techniques show where “functional activity”
occurs
PET Scans

 A positron emitting radionuclide is

injected (e.g., 2-deoxyglucose,
15O radioactive oxygen).

 Positrons interact with electrons

which produce photons (gamma rays)
traveling in opposite directions.
 PET scanner detects the photons.
 Computer determines how many
gamma rays from a particular region
and a map is made showing areas of
high to low activity.
 10 mm resolution; invasive
What PET Can Do
PET vs. CT Scans

 CT images brain structure.

 PET images brain function.
 CT involves absorption of X-rays.
 PET involves emission of radiation
by an injected or inhaled isotope.
Functional MRI (fMRI)
(1990s)

 Images brain hemodynamics

 Blood oxygen level dependent
(BOLD) signal
 Advantages over PET:
– No injections given
– Structure and Function
– Shorter imaging time
– Better spatial resolution
– 3-D images

 Check out this website for more info on fMRI

methods: http://www.fmri.org/fmri.htm
Brain Regions Impaired by Alcoholism

Non alcoholic Alcoholic

Psychophysiology

 Electroencephalography
(EEG)
 Electromyography (EMG)
 Electrooculography (EOG)
 Electrodermal activity (Skin
Conductance)
 Cardiovascular activity
– Heart rate (EKG)
– Blood Pressure
– Plethysmography
 Electrophysiological Techniques
 EEG

 non-invasive recordings
from an array of scalp
electrodes

Normal Seizure
Signal Averaging

“Event-related
Potentials (ERPs)”

 Background EEG signal can be removed by trial-averaging

revealing the response of a brain region to stimuli
 Averaging EEG produces ERPs
DOG
• Portions of the
EEG time-locked
SHOE
to an event are
AIR
averaged together,
extracting the
+
10uV
neural signature
-
for the ‘event’.
AVERAGE
0 1 2
TIME (sec)
 What do ERP waveforms tell us?
A
+
O N D ITION
5uV C
-
CON
DITI
ON B

ON
SE INFORMATION
TO
FE ABOUT THE
VE NEURAL BASIS
NT
OF PROCESSING
IS PROVIDED BY
0 1 2 THE DIFFERENCE
TIME (seconds) IN ACTIVITY
Electroencepholography

 Non-invasive
 High temporal resolution
 Direct reflection of neuronal activity
 Less expensive than fMRI or PET
 Poor spatial localization due to recordings made at
the scalp
 Better suited to answering questions about “when”
cognitive processes work not “where” they work
 Another Electrophysiological
Technique
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation

 Coil placed over target brain region

 Cognitive failures recorded
Techniques Used With Nonhuman
Animals

 Stereotaxic Surgery
 Lesion Methods
 Electrical Stimulation
 Electrophysiological
Recording
Lesioning Techniques

 Aspiration lesions
 Radio-frequency lesions
 Knife cuts
 Cryogenic blockade
 Chemical Lesions
Neurohistology Techniques

 Fixation, preservation of tissue,

sectioning and staining of tissue
 Uses of histological techniques
– Confirming lesion sites or electrode
locations
– In combination with neural tracing
techniques (anterograde,
retrograde labeling)
– Autoradiography or
Immunohistochemistry
Neurohistology Techniques

 Nissl Stains
– e.g., cresyl violet
– cell bodies
 Golgi Stain
– whole neurons
 Myelin Stains
– myelin
For more info., see web site:
http://education.vetmed.vt.edu/Curriculum/VM8054/Labs/Lab9/Lab9.htm
Electrophysiology Techniques

 Intracellular unit
recording
 Extracellular unit
recording
 Multiple-unit recording
 Patch clamping
Pharmacological Methods

 Measuring Chemical Activity

– 2-DG Autoradiography
– In vivo microdialysis
 Localizing Neurotransmitters and Receptors
– Immunocytochemistry
– In situ hybridization
 Transgenic mice

Genetic Engineering

 Gene Knockout Techniques

 Gene Replacement Techniques

Behavioral Research Methods

 NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTING
– Intelligence (e.g., WAIS, WISC)
– Verbal Subtests
 Information, digit-span, vocabulary, arithmetic,
comprehension, similarities
– Performance Subtests
 Picture-completion, picture-arrangement, block design,
object assembly, digit-symbol substitution
Neuropsychological Testing

 Language (lateralization)
– Sodium amytal test
– Dichotic listening test

 Language deficits
– Phonology
– Syntax
– Semantics
Neuropsychological Testing

 Memory
– STM, LTM
– Explicit, Implicit
– Semantic, Episodic
 Frontal Lobe Function
– Wisconsin Card Sorting Task
Animal Behavior Paradigms

 Species-common behaviors
– Aggressive Behaviors
– Defensive Behaviors (e.g., anxiety paradigms)
– Reproductive Behaviors
– Locomotor Activity
 Traditional Conditioning Paradigms
– Pavlovian (Classical) Conditioning
– Operant Conditioning
Animal Behavior Paradigms

 Open Field Apparatus

Animal Behavior Paradigms

 Operant Conditioning Apparatus

Animal Behavior Paradigms

 Common Learning Paradigms

– Conditioned Taste Aversion
– Conditioned Avoidance
– Radial Arm Maze
– Morris Water Maze
– Conditioned Defensive Burying
Animal Behavior Paradigms

 Radial Arm Maze