Sexuality

• Dating
• Sexual activity
• Problems in adolescence
– Contraception
– Pregnancy
– Abortion
– Parenthood

• Sex education programs

 Sexuality in Adolescence
• Physical changes: Puberty
– Increased sex drive (motivation)
– Maturation of sex organs (reproduction)
– Secondary sex characteristics
• Cognitive changes:
– Introspective reflection
• Self-consciousness
• Hypothetical thinking
• Conjecture
– Impulse control
• Social changes
– Significance of sexual relations
– Curiosity becomes sexual motivation
– Connection with adult roles
 Developmental Challenges

• Comfort with maturing body (changes)

• Accepting feelings of sexual arousal

• Engaging in voluntary sexual activities

• Understanding and practicing safe sex

 Developmental Patterns in Dating
The American Experience

• Most adolescent girls begin dating around age 12 or 13

• Most adolescent boys begin dating around 13 or 14
• By age 15 about 20% of adolescents say they have “gone with” someone
• Dating before among American adolescents tends to follow a
developmental sequence of four steps:
1. Adolescents in same-gender groups go to places where they hope to find
other-gender groups
2. Adolescents take part in social gatherings arranged by adults, such as
parties
3. Mixed-gender groups arrange to go to some particular event together,
such as a movie
4. Adolescent couples begin to date as pairs in activities such as movies,
dinners, concerts and so on
 Impact of Dating
• Serious dating before age 15 has a stunting effect on psychosocial
development
• Age-appropriate Dating
– Recreation - Fun and enjoyment
– Learning - Becoming more skilled at dating interactions
– Status - Impressing others according to how often one dates and
whom one dates
– Companionship - Sharing pleasurable activities with another
person
– Intimacy - Establishing a close emotional relationship with
another person
• Adolescent girls who do not date at all show
– retarded social development
– excessive dependency on parents
– feelings of insecurity
 Scripts

• Expectations for how males and females

behave in romantic relationships
• Shaped by relationships at home
• Shaped by the mass media
 Dating Scripts
• Proactive Script
• Males tend to follow this type of
script
• Includes:
– initiating the date
– deciding where they will go
– controlling the public domain
(driving the car)
– initiating sexual contact
• Reactive Script
• Females tend to follow this type of
script
• Focuses on:
– Private domain (grooming & dress)
– Responding to the male’s gestures in
the public domain
– Responding to his sexual initiatives
 Dating and Romantic Relationships

• High school dating no

longer functions as mate
selection, now recreational
• Romantic relationships are
very common, in the past
18 months
– 25% of 12-year-olds
reported having one
– 50% of 15-year-olds
reported having one
– 70% of 18-year-olds
reported having one
 Dating and Romantic
Relationships
• Dating and the Development
of Intimacy
– Dating can mean a variety of
things
• Group activities involving
boys and girls
• Casual dating in couples
• Serious involvement in a
steady relationship

• Transitions into and out of

romantic relationships can be
difficult for adolescents
– Breakups are the leading trigger
for depression
 Sternberg’s Theory of Love
Passion Intimacy Commitment
Forms of
Love Physical attraction Closeness and Pledge to love over
and sexual desire emotional attachment the long run

Liking No Yes No
Infatuation Yes No No
Empty Love No No Yes
Romantic Love Yes Yes No
Companionate No Yes Yes
Love
Fatuous Yes No Yes
Consummate Love Yes Yes Yes
 Applying Sternberg to
Adolescence

• In most adolescent love relationships, commitment is either

missing or highly tentative

• The absence of long term commitment in adolescence

means that there are two principal types of adolescent love:
infatuation and romantic love

Keep in Mind …..

In industrialized countries people are not likely to get married until they are
in at least their mid- to late twenties
Under these circumstances it is understandable that adolescents’ love
relationship would not involve commitment as much as passion or intimacy
 Falling in Love

• Consensual validation
– People like to find in others an agreement, or consensus, with their own
characteristics
– Finding this consensus supports, or validates, their own way of looking
at the world

• People of all ages tend to have romantic relationships with people who are
similar to them in characteristics such as:
– Intelligence
– Social class
– Ethnic background
– Religious beliefs
– Physical attractiveness
 Sexual Activity
Sexual Activity Males Females
Masturbation • Majority of boys begin about age • 33% of females reported
13 masturbating by age 13
• 90% by age 19 • 60% to 75% by age 20

Necking and Petting • 60% of 13 year olds had kissed at
least once
• 20% reported touching a girl’s
breast
• By age 18, 77% reported penile
touching
• 73% of 13 year olds had kissed at
least once
• 35% reported having their breast
touched
• By age 18, 60% reported vaginal
touching

Sexual Intercourse • Before 1965, 25% of boys reported • Before 1965, 10% of girls reported
and Oral Sex having intercourse having intercourse
• After 1965, 54% of boys reported • After 1965, 52% of girls reported
having intercourse having intercourse
 Ethnic Differences

• The proportion of high school students in grades 9-12 who have had
intercourse is:

– Lowest for White adolescents (49%)

– Somewhat higher for Latino adolescents (58%)
– Highest for African American adolescents (73%)

• Research has indicated that Asian Americans are considerably less likely to
engage in sexual activity in adolescence compared with any other major
American ethnic group
 Cultural Beliefs and Adolescent Sexuality

• Restrictive cultures:
– Place strong prohibitions on adolescent sexual activity before marriage
– Strict separation of boys and girls in early childhood through adolescence
– Some countries will even include the threat of physical punishment and
public shaming for premarital sex
– Usually more restrictive for girls than boys
• Semi-restrictive cultures:
– Have prohibitions but they are not strongly enforced and are easily
evaded
– If pregnancy results from premarital sex, the adolescents are often forced
to marry
• Permissive cultures:
– Encourage and expect adolescent sexuality
– Sexual behavior is encouraged even in childhood and the sexuality of
adolescence is simply a continuation of the sex play in childhood
 Sexual Activity

• Sexual Intercourse During

Adolescence
– By the end of sophomore
year of high school, more
than 40% have had
heterosexual vaginal
intercourse
– For many girls (~25%), the
first sexual experience is not
voluntary
 The Timing of Sexual Initiation

• Adolescents are more

likely to lose their
virginity during certain
times of the year
– June and December are
peak months
– May, June, July common
regardless of romantic
involvement (prom,
graduation)
– Holiday season in
December is peak time for
serious relationships
 Changes in Adolescent Sexual
Activity Over Time
• The percentage of sexually
active adolescents increased
during 1970s and 80s,
decreased slightly from 1995
to 2001
• One-third of adolescents
have early sexual intercourse
(before ninth grade)
• Greatest increase in
prevalence of premarital
intercourse has been among
females
 Trends in sexual attitudes

• Premarital sexual activity acceptable

– From 20% (1960) to 50% (1980)

• Early adolescence sexual activity acceptable

– 1/3 sexually active by 15
– 15% by 13

• Female sexual activity acceptable

– 5x more females sexually experienced in high school
 Sexually Active Adolescents
• Psychological/Social Characteristics of Sexually Active
Adolescents
– Sexual activity during adolescence (age 16 or later)
• Is not associated with psychological disturbance
• Levels of self-esteem and life satisfaction are similar to other
adolescents’
– However, early sexual activity (before age 16) has negative
correlates like:
• Experimentation with drugs and alcohol
• Lower levels of religious involvement
• Higher tolerance of deviant behavior
• Lower interest in academic achievement
• Higher orientation toward independence
 What Influences Sexual Activity?

• Hormones are especially important for boys

– Testosterone surge sparks initial interest in sex for boys and girls (girls are
also influenced by estrogens)
– Boys who are more popular with girls and mature earlier tend to initiate sex
earlier than unpopular boys
– Biological factors have a very strong influence on boys’ sexual behavior
• Context is especially important for girls
– The most important predictor of girls’ involvement in sexual intercourse is
whether their friends are doing it or have sexually permissive attitudes
 Parents and sexual activity

• Authoritative parenting
– Later sexual activity
– Less risky sexual activity
• Parent-adolescent conflict
– Earlier sexual activity
– High-risk sexual activity
• STD transmission
• Pregnancy
 Parents and sexual activity

• Parent-child communication

• Most effective
– for females (rather than males)
– with mothers (rather than fathers)
– if communication of values/attitudes
– for preventing risky sexual behaviors
 Parents and sexual activity

• Household composition
• Adolescents in midst of divorce
– Increase in risky behaviors generally

• Females in single-parent home

• Why females?
– Social influences (parent control)
– Mother likely to date (sexual role models)
– Seeking alternative sources of support
– Genetic
• Men leave family/Women have sex early
 Parents and sexual activity

• Sensitive to sexual activity levels (“normative

standards”)
– Peers
– Siblings
– perceived or actual

• Sexual initiation
– More experienced adolescents with less experienced
adolescents
– Epidemic model
• (e.g. Kids)
 Ecological model

• Individual-level factors
– Intelligence
– Drug use (risk behaviors)
– Sexual abuse
• Family-level factors
– Single-parent homes
– Poor parenting
– Low SES
• Extra-familial factors
– Sexually active friends
– Committed relationship
– Low-quality neighborhood
– Few positive school experiences
 Peer Influences

• Having sexually active

peers establishes a
normative standard that
having sex is okay
• Peers also can
communicate directly
about sex, with friends
or with potential partners
• Risk factors for sexual
activity are cumulative
 Sexually Active Adolescents

• Characteristics of non-virgins
– Similar self-esteem as virgins
– Similar overall life satisfaction as virgins
– More likely to be early maturing
– Tend to have lower levels of academic performance and academic
aspirations
• Adolescents who have sex early (15 years old or younger)
– Early users of drugs and alcohol
– More likely to be from single parent households
– More likely to have grown up in poverty
Contraceptive Use Among Sexually
Active Adolescents
• Many adolescents fail to
use contraception regularly
– Although rates have
improved since 1970s,
~40% of high school
students did not use a
condom the most recent
time they had sex
• Contraception may not be
readily available for all
adolescents
 Contraceptive Use and
Nonuse
• Why do most sexually active
adolescents fail to use
contraception consistently?

• Think about:
– Infrequency of sex
– Cognitive development
– Personal fable
– Embarrassment
Contraceptive Use and Nonuse
• Two types of countries have low rates of teenage
pregnancy:
– Those that are permissive about adolescent sex
– Those that adamantly forbid adolescent sex
Permissive Countries Restrictive Countries

Denmark Japan
Sweden South Korea
Netherlands Morocco

They have explicit safe Adolescents are strongly

sex campaigns. discouraged from even dating

Adolescents have easy It is rare for boys and girls to

access to contraception spend time alone together
 Teenage Pregnancy
and Childbearing
• Nearly one-third of
American women become
pregnant by age 20
– Not all pregnancies result in
childbirth (~30% are aborted,
~15% miscarry)
– 5% American teen births result
in adoptions
• America’s teen birth rate is
higher than all other
industrialized countries
 What Causes Teen Pregnancy?
• The most important difference between teens who
become pregnant and those who do not is
contraceptive use
– 85% of teen pregnancies are unintended, but those
who are less troubled by the prospect of having a
baby at a young age are more likely to use
contraceptives ineffectively
• Ambitious, well-educated, middle- to upper-class
women who live in wealthier areas are more
likely to terminate an unwanted pregnancy
Birth, Abortion, and Pregnancy
Notice how high the
pregnancy rate is in
the U.S.

Compare this to
Canada where
sexual activity rates
are the same but
the pregnancy rate
is about half
 Facts about the “Facts of Life”

• About 30% of pregnancies to American adolescents

end in abortion
• 14% of adolescents miscarry
• Of the children who are born, only about 5% are put
up for adoption

…. That means
about 50% of adolescents raise their own children
(sometimes with the help of the father but most often
with the help of the adolescent mother’s own mother)
 Teen Birth Rates
Black teens are twice In recent years, birth rates
as likely as White have become highest of all
teens to get pregnant among Latina adolescents
 What about Mom?
• Twice as likely to drop out of school
• Less likely to go to college or become employed
• Less likely to get married
• More likely to get divorced if they get married

• Do they catch up? (a sample of 300 mothers)

– Five years after given birth teenage mothers still lagged behind their
peers in educational, occupational and economic progress
– After 18 years
• 25% were still on welfare
• 25% had succeeded in making it into the middle class
• A majority had eventually completed high school
• 33% had completed at least some college education
 What about Dad?

• Being a teenage dad is related to a variety of negative

outcomes
– More likely to become divorced
– Lower level of education
– Lower paying job
– More prone to drug and alcohol use
– More likely to violate the law
– More feelings of anxiety and depression

Interesting Footnote:
Like adolescent mothers, the problems of adolescent
fathers often began prior to parenthood
 What about Baby?
• Children born to adolescent mothers face a higher likelihood
of a variety of difficulties in life
– Babies are more likely to be born premature
– Lower birth weight
– Premature and low birth weight are related to a variety of physical and
intellectual problems
– Greater likelihood of behavioral problems
– School misbehaviour, delinquency and early sexual activity

It is important to note:
These problems are not just due to having an adolescent mother
but also due to the fact that most adolescent mothers are not
only young and unmarried but poor as well
 Sexually Transmitted Diseases
• By age 24, one in three sexually active Americans have contracted an STD
• Two thirds of all STDs occur in people who are under 25 years old

• Two important characteristics of STDs

– Asymptomatic
• People show no symptoms of the disease
• They are especially likely to infect others because neither they nor others
realize that they are infected
– Latency Period
• There may be years between the time people are infected and the time they
being to show symptoms
• During this time they may be infecting others without either themselves or
their partners being aware of it
Sexually Transmitted Diseases
• Chlamydia
– Most common STD
– Highest rates among 15 to 19 year olds
– Leading cause of female infertility

• Gonorrhoea
– Caused by bacteria that thrive in the moist mucous membranes of the body
– Very easily passed along during sex
– Females are at least twice as likely as males to become infected

• Herpes Simplex
– Caused by a virus
– Has two variations: herpes simplex I and herpes simplex II
– Highly infectious (75% of persons exposed to an infected partner will become
infected)
– There is no cure for herpes
 Sexually transmitted diseases
• HIV/AIDS
– Strips the body of its ability to fend off infections
– The body is highly vulnerable to a wide variety of illnesses and diseases
– 90% of cases of HIV in the U.s. result from intercourse between homosexual or
bisexual partners
– Outside the U.S. HIV/AIDS is spread mainly between heterosexual partners
– Has a long latency period (tend to by asymptomatic up to 5 years)
– AIDS is the leading cause of death worldwide among persons 25 to 44 years
old
– 10 of every 11 new HIV infections worldwide come from Africa
– The mortality rate for people who have AIDS remains extremely high
 Sex Education

• Americans agree that rates of premarital pregnancy and STDs

in adolescence are serious problems that must be reduced

• However there is vehement disagreement about what is the

best solution
– One side: comprehensive sexuality education
– Other side: abstinence promotion
– Result: Neither!
 Sex Education
10 characteristics that make programs work
 Focus narrowly on reducing
one or more sexual behaviors
 Base the program on
theoretical approaches for
other risky behaviours
 Give a clear message about
sexual activity and
contraceptive use
 Provide basic, accurate
information about risks and
methods
 Include activities that teach
how to deal with social
pressures
 Model and provide practice in
negotiation and refusal skills
 Use a variety of teaching
methods
 Incorporate behavioral goals
specific to age, culture and
sexual experience
 Run the program over a
sufficient period of time
 Train teacher, youth workers
and peer leaders who believe
in the program