Radiation Physics

CV

• Name : Drg I Putu Gede Andyka Yasa

• Education:
• 2001 : SMAN 4 Denpasar
• 2009 : Dokter Gigi
• Current Position
• 2011 : Staff Bagian Radiologi Kedokteran Gigi FKG
UNMAS Denpasar
• 2011 : General Practitioner (Apotek K-24, Dalung
Permai)
• Research Experience
• 2012 : Visiting researcher Dentomaxillofacial
Radiology Departement, Showa University School of
Dentistry, Tokyo
• Roentgen's discovery of
the X-ray has been
ranked in importance
with the discovery and
development of
anesthesia by Horace
Wells and William
Morton, both dentists,
and the discovery of
microorganisms and
their role in disease by
the likes of Pasteur and
Lister.
• C. Edmund Kells gave
of his ingenuity, his
diligence and finally his
physical health to bring
the X-ray to dentistry. A
true dental pioneer,
Kells quickly grasped
the potential for
applying Roentgen's
discovery to dentistry.
 WHAT IS RADIATION?

• Radiation is an energy in the form of electro-

magnetic waves or particulate matter, traveling in
the air
• It is defined as the process by which energy is
emitted from a source and propagated through the
surrounding medium.
 COMPOSISITION OF MATTER

• Matter is anything that occupies space and has

inertia, it has mass and can exert force and be
acted on by a force
• State of matters
ATOMIC STRUCTURE

 Illustrations of Bohr’s
Atomic structure
 The orbits, or shells, lie at
defined distances from the
nucleus and are identified
by a letter K, L, M, N, O, P,
and Q shells
 The shells have numbers for
identification: 1 for the K
shell, 2 for the L shell, and
so on. These are the
principal quantum
numbers, represented by
the letter n.
 The maximum number of
electrons in a given shell is
2(n2)
PROPERTIES OF SUBATOMIC PARTICLES

 Electron
 9,1 x 10-28g, electrical
charge of -1
 Proton
 1,67 x 10-24g,
electrical charge of
+1
 1836 times the mass
of an electron
 Neutron
 1,68 x 10-24g, no
charge at all
 1852 times the mass
of an electron
 NUCLEUS

• Any atoms in its ground state is electrically

neutral, the total number of protons and
electrons it carries must be the same

Z XA
• Z: the number of protons in its nucleus (atomic
number)
• A: the total number of protons and neutrons in
the nucleus of an atom (atomic mass)
 THE ATOM
Carbon-12:
• 6 Protons
• 6 Neutrons
• 6 Electrons

Particle Location Charge Relative Mass

Proton Nucleus +1 1

Neutron Nucleus neutral 1

Electron Orbit -1 1/1837

Radioactivity : It is the act of emitting radiation
spontaneously from the unstable
atoms.
 Unstable atoms differ from stable atoms
because they have an excess of energy or mass
or both.
 Unstable atoms are known as radioactive
atoms.
E.g. Carbon 14, Uranium 238
 Radiation

Ionizing Non-ionizing

Directly ionizing
Indirectly ionizing
(Charged
(Neutral particles:
particle: proton,
photons, neutron)
electron
 NON-IONIZING RADIATION

• Non-ionizing radiation refers to any type of

electromagnetic radiation that does not carry
enough energy to ionize an atom or molecule.
• Near ultraviolet radiation
• infrared radiation,
• microwave,
• radio waves, etc
 IONIZING RADIATION

• Ionizing radiation has sufficient energy to ionize an atom

or molecule.
• Ionization is a process in which a charged portion of a
molecule (usually electron) is given enough energy to
break away from the atom.
• Ionization results in the formation of charged particles
or ions; the molecule with net positive charge and the
free electron with a net negative charge.
• All ionizing radiation is capable, directly and indirectly
of removing electrons from most of the molecules.
• Ionizing radiation has enough energy to damage DNA
in cells which in turn may lead to cancer.
UNSTABLE ATOMS DECAY

• Certain atoms are

radioactive because their
nuclei are unstable
• They have too few or too
many neutrons, which creates
an imbalance
• To get stable, the atom
“decays” and transforms into
a new atom by emitting
radiation in 4 forms:
• Alpha particle (α)
• Beta particle (β)
• Gamma wave (γ)
• Neutron particle (n)
• Sometimes the new atom is
also unstable, and it decays
too, creating a “decay
chain”
TYPE OF IONIZING RADIATION
 ALPHA DECAY

• A +2 charged helium nucleus with 2 protons and 2 neutrons

• Relatively heavy particle with a big charge
• Travels 2-5 cm in air
• Stopped by a piece of paper, or the top layer of your skin
• Difficult to detect
• Dangerous if inhaled– will cause localized severe damage to
a thin layer of tissue in the lungs and respiratory tract- possible
precursor to lung cancer
• Radioactive “beach ball”
 CHARACTERISTICS OF ALPHA
RADIATION

• Alpha radiation is not able to penetrate skin

• Alpha emitting materials can be harmful to humans if the
materials are inhaled, swallowed or absorbed through
open wounds.
 USES OF ALPHA RADIATIONS

Alpha particles are most commonly used in smoke

alarms (smoke detectors).
 Alpha decay can produce safe power sources for
radioisotope thermoelectric generators used for space
probes and artificial heart pacemakers.
 BETA DECAY

 Negatively (or positively) charged electron

 Relatively light particle, but still charged
 Travels ~10 meters in air
 Stopped by aluminum foil, glass plate or 2.5 cm of virtually
anything
 Difficult to detect
 Dangerous if inhaled– will cause localized severe damage to
a thin layer of tissue in the lungs and respiratory tract-
possible precursor to lung cancer
 Radioactive “golf ball”
CHARACTERISTIC OF BETA RADIATION

Beta radiation is more hazardous because it can also

cause ionization of living cells. If the particles hits a
molecule of DNA it can cause spontaneous mutation and
cancer
 Beta radiation may travel meters in air and is
moderately penetrating.
 It can penetrate human skin to “germinal layer” where
new cells are produced.
 USE OF BETA RADIATION

 Beta radiation are widely used in medicine. In branchy

therapy, beta radioisotopes can be used to irradiate areas
inside a patient to prevent the growth of certain tissues.
Beta particles are also used in some forms of therapy to kill
cancer cells.
 Beta particles are used in quality control to test the
thickness of an item, such as paper, coming through a
system of rollers.
 USE OF BETA RADIATION

 Beta radiation is used in leak detection in the pipeline.

This is achieved by adding small amount of beta radiation
to the fluid. The area above the ground where high
intensity of beta radiation is detected will pin point the leak
sources in the pipeline.
 Carbon-14 is used as tracers in chemical and biological
research. The age of the ancient organic materials can
also be found by measuring the amount of Carbon-14 that
is left.
 GAMMA DECAY

• Energetic electromagnetic wave (photon) with no charge

• Travels many kilometers/miles in air
• Stopped by lead or concrete 10+ cm thick
• Relatively easy to detect and direct exposure is likely
• Normal to be exposed to small amounts everyday from ground
radiation and cosmic rays
• γ rays vs. x-rays
• γ rays are emitted from the nucleus of an atom
• X-rays are emitted from the orbital electrons of an atom
• Radioactive
“9mm bullet”
 NEUTRON “DECAY”

Small, neutral particles (same size as a proton)

• Travels many kilometers in air
• Stopped by 30+ cm of water, polyethylene or
paraffin
• Spent fuel rods are stored in water
• Self-fissioning radioactive materials (Plutonium,
Californium) give off neutrons
• Large doses can do significant damage to people
 Electrostatic attraction
between positively charged
neutron and negatively
charged electron balances
the centrifugal force of the
rapidly revolving electron
and maintain them in the
orbit
 Energy binding electron or
ionization energy: the
amount of energy required to
remove an electron from a
given shell must exceed the
electrostatic force of
attraction between it and the
nucleus
 Electromagnetic radiation is
the energy released to move
electron from the outer shell
into the inner shell of an
electron orbit
 IONIZATION

• When the number of orbiting electrons in an atom is

equal to the number of protons in its nucleus, the
atom is electrically neutral. If an electrically neutral
atom loses an electron, it becomes a positive ion
and the free electron is a negative ion. This process
of forming an ion pair is termed ionization. Electrons
can be lost from an atom by heating or by
interactions (collisions) with high-energy x rays or
particles such as protons.
 NATURE OF RADIATION

Particulate radiation Electromagnetic radiation

• Alpha particles: • Gamma rays, x rays,
• Ionization: high
ultraviolet rays, visible
• Penetration: low
• Heavy mass light, infrared
• Beta particles: radiation (heat),
• Ionization: < alpha microwaves, and
• Penetration: > alpha radio waves are all
• Light mass
examples of
• Cathode rays: high-
speed electrons electromagnetic
produced by radiation
manufactured devices
(e.g., x-ray tubes).
 THE X-RAY MACHINE
• X-Ray Tube
• Cathode
• Anode
• Power Supply
• Tube current
• Tube voltage
• Timer
• Tube Rating and Duty Cells
 X-RAY TUBE
• Coolidge Tubes
• Compose of cathode and anode
• Cathode serves as source of electron that flow to anode
• Cathode and anode lie within an evacuated glass or tube
 X RAY TUBE
Cathode
• Consists of a filament and a
focusing cup
• Filament is the source of
electron, made from tungsten
coil 2 mm in diameter and < 1
cm in length
• The focusing cup
electrostatically focuses the
electrons emitted by the
incandescent filament into a
narrow beam directed at a
small rectangular area on the
anode called the focal spot
Anode
 Consists of a tungsten target
embedded in a copper stem to
convert the kinetic energy of the
electrons generated from the
filament into x-ray photons.
 The target is made of tungsten
because of it has a high atomic
number (74), high melting point,
high thermal conductivity, and low
vapor pressure at the working
temperatures of an x-ray tube.
 Copper, a good
thermalconductor, dissipates heat
from the tungsten, thus reducing
the risk of the target melting. In
addition, insulating oil between
the glass envelope and the
housing of the tube head carries
heat away from the copper stem.
A, Focusing cup (arrow) containing a filament in the cathode of the tube from
a dental x-ray machine. B, Focal spot area (arrows) on the target of the tube. The size and shape
of the focal area approximate those of the focusing cup.
 POWER SUPPLY
• The primary functions of the power supply of an
x-ray machine are to
• Provide a low-voltage current to heat the x-ray tube
filament by use of a step-down transformer
• Generate a high potential difference between the
anode and cathode by use of a high voltage
transformer.
 POWER SUPPLY
Tube Current
• The tube current is
the flow of electrons
through the tube,
that is, from the
filament to the
anode and then
back to the filament
through the wiring of
the power supply.
Tube Voltage
• A high voltage is required
between the anode and
cathode to generate x
rays
• The high-voltage
transformer provides the
high voltage required by
the x-ray tube to
accelerate the electrons
from the cathode to the
anode and generate x
rays.
 TIMER
• The timer controls the length of time that high
voltage is applied to the tube and therefore the
time during which tube current flows and x rays
are produced.
TUBE RATING AND DUTY CELLS
• Tube rating specifications that describe the
maximal exposure time the tube can be
energized without risk of damage to the target
from overheating
• Duty cycle relates to the frequency with which
successive exposures can be made
Productions of X-Ray
Bremsstrahlung
Characteristic Radiation
 BREMSSTRAHLUNG
• Bremsstrahlung
radiation is
produced by the
direct hit of
electrons on the
nucleus in the
target (A) or by
the passage of
electrons near the
nucleus, which
results in electrons
being deflected
CHARACTERISTIC RADIATIONS
• An incident electron in
an inner orbit ejects a
photoelectron, creating
a vacancy. This
vacancy is filled by an
electron from an outer
orbit. A photon is
emitted with energy
equal to the difference
in energy levels
between the two orbits.
 FACTORS CONTROLLING X-RAY
BEAM
• Beam exposure length (timer),
• Exposure rate (mA), beam energy (kVp and
filtration) ,
• Beam shape (collimation), and target-patient
distance.
 BEAM EXPOSURE
The changes in the x-ray
spectrum that result when the
exposure time is increased while
the tube current (mA) and
voltage (kVp) remain constant.
When the exposure time is
doubled, the number of photons
generated at all energies in the
x-ray emission spectrum is
doubled, but the range of
photon energies is unchanged.
Therefore changing the time
simply controls the quantity of
the exposure, the number of
photons generated.
 TUBE CURRENT (MA)
• Spectrum of
photon energies
showing that as
tube current (mA)
increases (kVp
and exposure time
held constant), so
does the total
number of
photons. The
mean energy and
maximal energy of
the beams are
unchanged
 TUBE VOLTAGE (KVP)
• Spectrum of photon
energies showing that
as the kVp is increased
(tube current and
exposure time held
constant), there is a
corresponding increase
in the mean energy of
the beam, the total
number of photons
emitted, and the
maximal energy of the
photons.
 FILTRATION
• Filtering an x-ray
beam with aluminum
preferentially
removes low-energy
photons, thereby
reducing the beam
intensity and
increasing its mean
energy.
 COLLIMATION
• A collimator is a
metallic barrier
with an aperture in
the middle used to
reduce the size of
the x-ray beam
and therefore the
volume of
irradiated tissue
within the patient.
• Improves image
quality.
Interaction of X Ray With Matter
Coherent Scattering
Photoelectric Absorption
Compton Scattering
 COHERENT SCATTERING
• Coherent scattering
resulting from the
interaction of a low-
energy incident photon
with an outer electron,
causing the outer
electron to vibrate
momentarily. After this,
a scattered photon of
the same energy is
emitted at a different
angle from the path of
the incident photon
 PHOTOELECTRIC ABSORPTION

A, Photoelectric absorption occur when an incident

photon gives up all its energy to an inner electron
ejected from the atom (a photoelectron), B, An
electron vacancy in the inner orbit results in ionization
of the atom. C, An electron from a higher energy level
fill the vacancy and emits characteristic radiations, D,
All orbits are subsequently filled completing the energy
exchange.
 COMPTON SCATTERING
• Compton
absorption occurs
when an incident
photon interacts
with an outer
electron,
producing a
scattered photon
of lower energy
than the incident
photon and a
recoil electron
ejected from the
target atom.
 DIFFERENTIAL ABSORPTION

• The number of photoelectric and Compton

interactions is greater in hard tissues than in soft
tissues.
Secondary electrons
 Secondary electrons give up their energy by
 Collisional interaction with other electron, resulting
ionization or excitation of the affected atoms.
 Radiative interaction, which produce Bremsstrahlung
radiation resulting in the emission of low energy photons
 BEAM ATTENUATION
• As an x-ray beam
travels through
matter, its intensity
is reduced
(attenuated). This
results from loss of
individual photons,
primarily through
photoelectric
absorption and
Compton
scattering
interactions.