BUILDING SERVICES

SEMESTER FOUR
Water resources are sources of water that are potentially useful. Uses of water include agricultural, Industrial,
house hold, recreational and environmental activities. The majority of human uses require fresh water.
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface. It is vital for all known forms of life.
97% of the water on the Earth is salt water and only three percent is fresh water; slightly over two thirds of this
is frozen in glaciers and polar ice caps
Surfac es
Water covers 71% of the Earth's surface, but 97% of it has too high a salt content (salinity) to be drunk by living
beings or used in agriculture.
Fresh water thus only represents 3% of the total quantity of water. Some 70% of this is trapped in the polar ice-
caps. Rivers, lakes and marshes only represent 1% of the total water on Earth. The remainder is underground
water.
Sea water and ice represent 99.35% of all water on the planet Earth. The remainder is underground water, and
that in streams, rivers, lakes, and the atmosphere.
Some 60% of rainwater evaporates and forms clouds; 25% penetrates the soil, and 15% flows into rivers and
lakes.
The Earth's atmosphere contains 13,000 million tonnes of water. This is equal to a layer of water 2.5 cm deep,
covering the entire surface of the Earth.
We use a lot of water for our daily needs. Here are the quantities of water required for domestic use
(mean values for a European citizen; in some countries the quantities are less because of stricter
regulations)

The following norms are being adopted by the Government for the rural water supply schemes. Provision of
40 litres of water per day per capita is aimed at in the rural areas currently.
Purpose Quantity (LPCD)
Drinking 3 Cooking 5
Bathing 15 Washing utensils & house 7 Ablution 10
World Water Forum in Kyoto prepared a document on water entitled WATER, AN ESSENTIAL ELEMENT FOR LIFE.

Starting from the point that water plays a central

and critical role in all aspects of life, analysed
water
1. social good - Water for Food and Rural
Development
Eg : Agriculture, farmers , poverty, Lands that
have been damaged by waterlogging and
salinization
Safe
Drinking Water, Health and Sanitation

Eg : Three crucial concerns are present in the

relationship between water and health: managing
quantity constraints faced by water-poor countries
and their impact on human activities; the
maintenance of water quality in the face of
growing demand; and the direct link between
health and water as pertains to diseases.
 The problem of maintaining and improving water
Management of water quantity can be carried out
quality is especially acute in the more urbanized areas,
by revising the allocation of water to different
predominantly in developing countries. This is most often
users. Better maintenance and repair of existing
hampered by a failure to enforce pollution controls at
water systems can often significantly increase the
the main point source and the inadequacy of sanitation
water supply.
systems and of garbage collection and disposal.
Water conservation methods such as rainwater
harvesting, fog condensation and underground
dams should be studied for use where
appropriate along with stabilization ponds for Most of the diseases that contaminate water come from animal
wastewater and treatment technology for the use or human waste and are communicable. These diseases have
of wastewater for irrigation. health effects that are heavily concentrated in the developing
world, and poor urban populations. Wastewater is often the
medium through which these can affect humans.

Water shortages can be substantially overcome through further development and use of treated urban wastewater
for use in agriculture.
Peace and/or Conflict
Growing pressure due to increasing demand for water can Private Sector Engagement and Privatisation
be a source of conflict. When water is scarce, competition
for limited supplies has lead nations to see water as a Water by its very nature cannot be treated as a mere
matter of national or regional security. History provides commodity among other commodities.
ample evidence of competition and disputes over shared
fresh water resources.

AN ECONOMIC GOOD
The Economics of Water
The economics of water is one of the most important
aspects of water resource management that needs to be
balanced with cultural and social concerns. The concept
of treating water as an economic good is valid but the
practice of doing so can be challenging

Water and Energy

Hydroelectric power is an important source of clean
energy. It provides approximately twenty percent of
total electricity production worldwide and brings notable
economic and environmental benefits.
AN ENVIRONMENTAL GOOD
while briefly treating a limited number of other issues
impacting water. In concluding, the text highlighted the
central role of the human being in caring for the
environment and its constitutive elements.
ENVIRONMENTALLY SOUND SANITATION
Conventional forms of centralised sanitation are
coming under increasing criticism due to huge
operating and maintenance costs but more importantly
their high water consumption and the groundwater
pollution that can result.
OTHER ISSUES IMPACTING WATER SUPPLY
 Population,
 Politics,
 Right to water,
 poverty
Disaster Mitigation and Risk Management
A people centred pro-poor policy on water
management must address the question of water
related hazards such as floods, droughts,
desertification, tropical storms, erosion and various
kinds of pollution. Many so called natural disasters are
in fact man made in their roots, due to inadequate
attention to the environment and the consequences of
human actions or indeed inaction. Once again, it is the
poor who suffer most when they are exposed to such
dangers
Quality of water: impurities in water, drinking water standards- physical, chemical and biological
analysis.
Rain water harvesting, storm water collection, computation of storm water runoff. Ground water
recharging- sustainability of local natural water systems (brief description only).
Water quality refers to the chemical, physical, biological, and radiological characteristics of water. It is most frequently used by
reference to a set of standards against which compliance can be assessed. The most common standards used to assess water
quality relate to health of ecosystems, safety of human contact, and drinking water.
Human consumption
Contaminants that may be in untreated water include microorganisms such as viruses, protozoa and bacteria; inorganic contaminants
such as salts and metals; organic chemical contaminants from industrial processes and petroleum use; pesticides and herbicides;
and radioactive contaminants. Water quality depends on the local geology and ecosystem, as well as human uses such as sewage
dispersion, industrial pollution, use of water bodies as a heat sink, and overuse (which may lower the level of the water)
Industrial and domestic use
Dissolved minerals may affect suitability of water for a range of industrial and domestic purposes. The most familiar of these is
probably the presence of ions of calcium (Ca2+) and magnesium (Mg2+) which interfere with the cleaning action of soap, and can
form hard sulfate and soft carbonate deposits in water heaters or boilers.
Hard water may be softened to remove these ions. The softening process often substitutes sodium cations. Hard water may be
preferable to soft water for human consumption, since health problems have been associated with excess sodium and with calcium
and magnesium deficiencies. Softening decreases nutrition and may increase cleaning effectiveness.Various industries' wastes and
effluents can also pollute the water quality in receiving bodies of water.

Environmental water quality, also called ambient water quality, relates to water bodies such as lakes, rivers, and oceans. Water
quality standards for surface waters vary significantly due to different environmental conditions, ecosystems, and intended human
uses. Toxic substances and high populations of certain microorganisms can present a health hazard for non-drinking purposes such as
irrigation, swimming, fishing, rafting, boating, and industrial uses. These conditions may also affect wildlife, which use the water for
drinking or as a habitat. Modern water quality laws generally specify protection of fisheries and recreational use and require, as a
minimum, retention of current quality standards.
Drinking water indicators
The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category

 Alkalinity
 Colour of water
 pH
 Taste and odour (geosmin, 2-Methylisoborneol (MIB), etc.)
 Dissolved metals and salts
(sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium)
 Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium,
and Giardia lamblia,
 Bacteriological water analysis
 Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)
 Dissolved organics: coloured dissolved organic matter (CDOM), dissolved organic
carbon (DOC)
 Radon
 Heavy metals
 Pharmaceuticals
 Hormone analogs
ANALYSES OF PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS
The parameters analysed to assess the water quality are broadly divided into
Physical parameters: Colour, Temperature, Transparency, Turbidity and Odour

COLOUR:
In natural water, colour is due to the presence of humic acids, fulvic acids, metallic ions, suspended matter, plankton, weeds and
industrial effluents. Colour is removed to make water suitable for general and industrial applications and is determined by visual
comparison of the sample with distilled water
TEMPERATURE:
Impinging solar radiation and atmospheric temperature brings about spatial and temporal changes in temperature, setting up
convection currents and thermal stratification. Temperature plays a very important role in wetland dynamism affecting the various
parameters such as alkalinity, salinity, dissolved oxygen, electrical conductivity etc. In an aquatic system, these parameters affect the
chemical and biological reactions such as solubility of oxygen, carbon-di-oxide-carbonate-bicarbonate equilibrium, increase in
metabolic rate and physiological reactions of organisms, etc. Water temperature is important in relation to fish life. The temperature
of drinking water has an influence on its taste
TRANSPARENCY (LIGHT PENETRATION)
Solar radiation is the major source of light energy in an aquatic system, governing the primary productivity. Transparency is a
characteristic of water that varies with the combined effect of colour and turbidity. It measures the light penetrating through the
water body and is determined using Secchi disc.
TURBIDITY
Turbidity is an expression of optical property; wherein light is scattered by suspended particles present in water (Tyndall effect)
and is measured using a nephelometer. Suspended and colloidal matter such as clay, silt, finely divided organic and inorganic
matter; plankton and other microscopic organisms cause turbidity in water. Turbidity affects light scattering, absorption properties
and aesthetic appearance in a water body. Increase in the intensity of scattered light results in higher values of turbidity
CHEMICAL PARAMETERS

pH
The effect of pH on the chemical and biological properties of liquids makes its determination very important. It is one of the most
important parameter in water chemistry and is defined as -log [H+], and measured as intensity of acidity or alkalinity on a scale
ranging from 0-14. If free H+ are more it is expressed acidic (i.e. pH<7), while more OH- ions is expressed as alkaline (i.e. pH> 7).
In natural waters pH is governed by the equilibrium between carbon dioxide/bicarbonate/carbonate ions and ranges between 4.5
and 8.5 although mostly basic. It tends to increase during day largely due to the photosynthetic activity (consumption of carbon-di-
oxide) and decreases during night due to respiratory activity. Waste water and polluted natural waters have pH values lower or
higher than 7 based on the nature of the pollutant.

ELECTRICAL CONDUCTIVITY
Conductivity (specific conductance) is the numerical expression of the water's ability to conduct an electric current. It is measured in
micro Siemens per cm and depends on the total concentration, mobility, valence and the temperature of the solution of ions. Electrolytes
in a solution disassociate into positive (cations) and negative (anions) ions and impart conductivity. Most dissolved inorganic substances
are in the ionised form in water and contribute to conductance.

TOTAL SOLIDS:
Total solids is the term applied to the material residue left in the vessel after evaporation of the sample and its subsequent drying in
an oven at a temperature of 103-105oC. Total solids include Total Suspended Solids (TSS) and Total Dissolved Solids (TDS).

TOTAL DISSOLVED SOLIDS

Dissolved solids are solids that are in dissolved state in solution. Waters with high dissolved solids generally are of inferior palatability
and may induce an unfavourable physiological reaction in the transient consumes
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS
Suspended solids are the portions of solids that are retained on a filter of standard specified size (generally 2.0 µ) under specific
conditions. Water with high-suspended solids is unsatisfactory for bathing, industrial and other purposes

TOTAL HARDNESS
Hardness is predominantly caused by divalent cations such as calcium, magnesium, alkaline earth metal such as iron, manganese,
strontium, etc. The total hardness is defined as the sum of calcium and magnesium concentrations, both expressed as CaCO3 in mg/L.
Carbonates and bicarbonates of calcium and magnesium cause temporary hardness. Sulphates and chlorides cause permanent
hardness

DISSOLVED OXYGEN
Oxygen dissolved in water is a very important parameter in water analysis as it serves as an indicator of the physical, chemical and
biological activities of the water body. The two main sources of dissolved oxygen are diffusion of oxygen from the air and
photosynthetic activity. Diffusion of oxygen from the air into water depends on the solubility of oxygen, and is influenced by many
other factors like water movement, temperature, salinity, etc. Photosynthesis, a biological phenomenon carried out by the autotrophs,
depends on the plankton population, light condition, gases, etc. Oxygen is considered to be the major limiting factor in water bodies
with organic materials

BIOLOGICAL OXYGEN DEMAND

Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) is the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms for stabilizing biologically decomposable
organic matter (carbonaceous) in water under aerobic conditions. The test is used to determine the pollution load of wastewater, the
degree of pollution and the efficiency of wastewater treatment methods
BIOLOGICAL PARAMETERS

PLANKTON ANALYSIS: The physical and chemical characteristics of water affect the abundance, species composition, stability
and productivity of the indigenous populations of aquatic organisms. The biological methods used for assessing water quality
includes collection, counting and identification of aquatic organisms; biomass measurements; measurements of metabolic activity
rates; toxicity tests; bioaccumulation; bio magnification of pollutants; and processing and interpretation of biological data. The
work involving plankton analysis would help in

1. Explaining the cause of colour and turbidity and the presence of objectionable odour, tastes and visible particles in
waters
2. The interpretation of chemical analyses.
3. Identifying the nature, extent and biological effects of pollution.
4. Providing data on the status of an aquatic system on a regular basis
 Strategies to Combat Water Quality Problems
There are four fundamental strategies to combat water quality problems that can form the basis of policy
solutions for improving water quality
Prevention of pollution
Treatment of polluted water
Safe use of waste water
Restoration and protection of
ecosystems
Pollution prevention strategies focus on the
reduction or elimination of waste at the
source. Prevention is widely regarded as
the cheapest, easiest and most effective
way to protect water quality. Furthermore,
not only are there environmental benefits
to preventing or reducing pollution, there
may also be tremendous financial benefits,
as generation of waste, especially from
industrial and agricultural processes, is a
demonstration of inefficient use of materials
and resources
In cases where contaminants result from domestic, industrial or agricultural
activities', waste water must be treated before discharging. Treatment strategies
for contaminated water range along a continuum from high-technology, energy-
intensive approaches to low-technology, low-energy, biologically and
ecologically focused approaches.
Where good water distribution and treatment systems are already in place,
constant effort is needed to maintain and expand their effective operation.
Nevertheless,
many waste water treatment facilities are not working due to deficient human,
technical and financial resources for operation and maintenance.
Poorly maintained or operated systems can lead to degradation of even high-
quality water before it reaches its point of use
Rainwater harvesting is a technique used for collecting, storing and using rainwater for landscape irrigation and other uses.
The rainwater is collected from various hard surfaces such as rooftops and/or other manmade aboveground hard surfaces.
The harvested water can also be used as drinking water, longer-term storage and for other purposes such as groundwater
recharge

Storm water harvesting is the collection, accumulation, treatment or purification, and storing of storm water for its eventual
reuse. It differs from rainwater harvesting as the runoff is collected from drains or creeks, rather than roofs.

Water that comes in contact with impervious surfaces becomes

polluted and is denominated surface runoff. As the water travels
more distance over impervious surfaces it collects an increasing
amount of pollutants.
The main challenge stormwater harvesting poses is the removal
of pollutants in order to make this water available for reuse

Groundwater recharge or deep

drainage or deep percolation is
a hydrologic process where water moves
downward from surface water to groundwater.
Recharge is the primary method through which
water enters an aquifer. This process usually
occurs in the vadose zone below plant roots and
is often expressed as a flux to the water
table surface