Research Design And Methods

Dr. Aashiq Hussain Lone

Assistant Professor, Higher Education Govt. of Jammu and
Kashmir
Objectives of the session

 Learn about significance of research design;

 Discuss various types of research design with
limitations and examples;
 Learn methods of research with example.
 Research Design
• Overall strategy that you choose to integrate the different
Strategy components of the study in a coherent and logical way.

• Constitutes the blueprint for the collection, measurement

Blueprint and analysis of data.

• Research problem determines the type of design you

Follows RP should use, not the other way around!

Choice of
• Qualitative/quantitative/mixed
Method
Significance

Review and synthesize previously published literature associated with the

research problem.

Clearly and explicitly specify hypotheses [i.e., research questions] central to the
problem.

Describe the methods of analysis to be applied to the data in determining

whether or not the hypotheses are true or false.

Organization and structure of a study will vary depending on the type of design
you are using.
 Types of Research design

Exploratory Descriptive Causal

Design Design Design

Action Cohort
Case Design
Design Design

Cross- Experimental Longitudinal

Sectional Design Design
Design
Exploratory design

Arrow in • Few or no earlier studies to refer to or rely upon to

predict an outcome

the Dark • Research problems are in a preliminary stage of

investigation.

Theory • The focus is on gaining insights and familiarity for

later investigation

Creation • Generation of new ideas and assumptions

• Development of tentative theories or hypotheses

Future • Issues get refined for more systematic investigation

and formulation of new research questions.

Direction • Direction for future research and techniques get

developed.
Limitations

Small sample sizes and, thus, findings are typically not

generalizable to the population at large

They provide insight but not definitive conclusions.

Flexible but often unstructured, leading to only tentative results that

have limited value to decision-makers.

Design lacks rigorous standards applied to methods of data gathering.

Some research Questions?
 What are the critical success factors of a profitable
company?
 What are the distinguishing features of a good
leader?
 What are the reasons for the carnage on Indian
roads?
 What are the reasons for low start-up rates in
Jammu and Kashmir?
 Descriptive research designs
• Provide answers to the questions of who, what, when, where, and
how associated with a particular research problem;
Description

• Obtain information concerning the current status of the

phenomena and to describe “what exists” with respect to variables
Theory or conditions in a situation.
testing

• Descriptive studies can yield rich data that lead to important

recommendations in practice.
Quantitative • Approach collects a large amount of data for detailed analysis.
Limitations

The descriptive function of research is heavily dependent on

instrumentation for measurement and observation.

Participants or subjects may not be truthful or may not behave

naturally when they know they are being observed.

Descriptive studies cannot be used to correlate variables or

determine cause and effect.
Some research Questions?

 What is the average age at which children learn to

walk?
 Percent of the population who would vote for a
Congress or BJP in the next election?
 Comparison of leadership styles using MBIT scale
between private and public sector banks.
 Causal research designs
• Understanding a phenomenon in terms of conditional
Casualty statements in the form, “Does X cause Y?”

• Measures what impact a specific change will have in

Impact other variable?

• Independent and Dependent variables

Dependency
Limitations

Not all relationships are casual! The

possibility always exists that, by sheer
coincidence.

A phenomenon may be caused by number

of factors!
Some research Questions?

 What are the main causes of malnutrition in a rural

community?
 Is smoking the main cause of lung cancer?
 Relationship between pesticide and productivity?
 Case Study Designs

• In-depth study of a particular research problem rather than a sweeping

statistical survey or comprehensive comparative inquiry.
One/few

• Used to narrow down a very broad field of research into one or a few easily
researchable examples.
• A researcher using a case study design can apply a variety of methodologies
Flexibility and rely on a variety of sources to investigate a research problem.

• The design can provide detailed descriptions of specific and rare cases.
Detailed
Limitations

A single or small number of cases offers little basis for establishing reliability or to
generalize the findings to a wider population of people, places, or
things.

Intense exposure to the study of a case may bias a researcher's interpretation of the
findings.

Does not facilitate assessment of cause and effect relationships.

The case may not be representative or typical of the larger problem being investigated.
 Action Research Design
• The protocol is iterative or cyclical in nature and is intended to foster
deeper understanding of a given situation, starting with
conceptualizing and particularizing the problem and moving through
Iterative several interventions and evaluations.

• When an understanding of a problem is developed and plans are made

for some form of interventionary strategy.
Intervene

• This is a collaborative and adaptive research design that lends itself to

use in work or community situations.
Collaborative
Limitations

It is harder to do than conducting conventional

research because the researcher takes on
responsibilities of advocating for change as well
as for researching the topic.

Personal over-involvement of the researcher may

bias research results.
 Cohort Research Design
• Often used in the medical sciences, but also found in the
applied social sciences, a cohort study generally refers to a
study conducted over a period of time involving members of a
population which the subject or representative member comes
Same groups from, and who are united by some commonality or similarity.

• Using a quantitative framework, a cohort study makes note of

statistical occurrence within a specialized subgroup, united by
same or similar characteristics that are relevant to the research
No problem being investigated, rather than studying statistical
occurrence within the general population.
randomization
Limitations

Due to the lack of randominization

in the cohort design, its external
validity is lower than that of study
designs where the researcher
randomly assigns participants.
An example
 A cohort study was designed to assess the impact of sun
exposure on skin in beach volleyball players.
 During a weekend tournament, players from one team wore
waterproof, SPF 35 sunscreen, while players from the other
team did not wear any sunscreen.
 At the end of the volleyball tournament players' skin from
both teams was analyzed for texture, sun damage, and
burns.
 Comparisons of skin damage were then made based on the
use of sunscreen.
 The analysis showed a significant difference between the
cohorts in terms of the skin damage.
Cross-sectional Research Design
• A cross-sectional design can only measure differences between or
from among a variety of people, subjects,.
• While longitudinal studies involve taking multiple measures over an
Different extended period of time, cross-sectional research is focused on
finding relationships between variables at one moment in time.
groups

• Unlike an experimental design, where there is an active intervention

by the researcher to produce and measure change or to create
differences, cross-sectional designs focus on studying and drawing
Existing inferences from existing differences between people, subjects, or
phenomena.
Difference
Limitations

Studies cannot be utilized to establish

cause and effect relationships.

There is no follow up to the findings.

Experimental Design
• Experimental research allows the researcher to
control the situation.
• In so doing, it allows researchers to answer the
Controlled question, “What causes something to occur?”

• Permits the researcher to identify cause and

effect relationships between variables.
Cause and • Approach provides the highest level of evidence
effect for single studies
Limitations

The design is artificial, and results may not generalize

well to the real world.

The artificial settings of experiments may alter the

behaviours or responses of participants.
Experimental designs can be costly if special
equipment or facilities are needed.
Longitudinal Design

• A longitudinal study follows the same sample

over time and makes repeated observations.

• Same group of people is interviewed at regular

intervals, enabling researchers to track changes
over time and to relate them to variables that
might explain why the changes occur.
Limitations

The data collection method may change over time.

Maintaining the integrity of the original sample can be

difficult over an extended period of time.

A longitudinal research design assumes present trends will

continue unchanged.

It can take a long period of time to gather results.

Methods of Research
Qualitative and quantitative method

 Qualitative research is typically inductive, subjective

and contextual.
 Quantitative research is deductive, objective and
general.
References
Coghlan, David and Mary Brydon-Miller. The Sage Encyclopedia of
Action Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2014;
Efron, Sara Efrat and Ruth Ravid. Action Research in Education: A
Practical Guide. New York: Guilford, 2013;
Gall, Meredith. Educational Research: An Introduction. Chapter 18,
Action Research. 8th ed. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon, 2007;
Gorard, Stephen. Research Design: Creating Robust Approaches for the
Social Sciences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2013;
Kemmis, Stephen and Robin McTaggart. “Participatory Action Research.”
In Handbook of Qualitative Research.
Norman Denzin and Yvonna S. Lincoln, eds. 2nd ed. (Thousand Oaks,
CA: SAGE, 2000), pp. 567-605;
McNiff, Jean. Writing and Doing Action Research. London: Sage, 2014;
Reason, Peter and Hilary Bradbury. Handbook of Action Research:
Participative Inquiry and Practice. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, 2001.
Thank you