Introduction to

Memory

Dr. Paul Wehr

 Attention is Selective
• Focusing awareness on a narrow range of stimuli.
– Filters out irrelevant stimuli (e.g, players in black shirts).
– Where is the filter? Before or after information processing?
• “Cognitive Load” moves the filter forward.
• Only information that is attended to can be encoded.
– Dividing attention during encoding leads to impaired memory (e.g.,
word frequency in a conversation).
– “Next in line” effect.
– Using social media in the classroom.
 Introduction to Memory

• What is memory?
– Reconstructive Process: Not a recording
– It’s selective, and details are excluded, altered, and added
• How does memory work?
– Encode: enter information into memory.
– Storage: maintain information in memory.
– Recall: retrieve information from memory.
– Forgetting: deficiency in one or more of these processes.
 Encoding

• Passive Encoding: simple information may be encoded

automatically (e.g., parked car; last night’s TV show; word
frequencies).
• Active Encoding: more complex information requires
effortful encoding (e.g., course content; textbook).
– Massed Practice: learning proceeds over one long session (e.g.,
cramming the night before).
– Spaced Practice: learning is broken up into a number of short
sessions over a longer period of time.
 Attending Lectures & Active Encoding

• Always attend lectures!

• Taking Notes:
– Come ready to work!
– Active listening while writing.
– Read the chapter beforehand.
– Develop shorthand.
– Ask questions!
– Attend office hours
• Lecture notes available on Connect: print 3 slides/page.
• Rewrite notes at end of week and rewrite them.
Lindgren (1969)
 Levels of Processing

• Deeper processing of information produces more durable

memory coding.
 Enriched Semantic Encoding

• Elaboration: association of new information with previously

stored information (e.g., metaphor; examples).
• Visual (mental) imagery: a mental image to assist memory.
– High vs. Low Imagery concepts.
– Dual-coding.
• Self-referent encoding: relating new information to self.
– Rogers, Kuiper, & Kirker (1977): replicated Craik & Tulving (1975)
with list of adjectives applied to self.
– Not just positive qualities; depressed patients.
– Reference to others does not work.

Paivio, Smythe, & Yuille, (1968)

 Chunking

• Combining elements of information to create fewer but

larger meaningful chunks of information.

F B I P H D T W A I B M
FBI PHD TWA IBM
 Mnemonics

• Strategies or tricks for improving

memory coding; convert random Encod
sequences of information into
meaningful chunks of information.
• Treble clef Active

– Spaces: FACE
– Lines: EGBDF
• Stalagmites vs. Stalactites Structural Phonemic S

• Letter before J?

Chunking & M
Elaboration
Mnemonics Im
 Sensory Register (Memory)

• Memory system that momentarily preserves accurate

sensory information.
• Separate subsystems for each sensory input.
– Visual information (.25 sec); Sperling (1960).
– Auditory information (<1 sec).
• Afterimages: memory endures after stimulus is
extinguished.
– Short duration limits “double-exposure”.
 Short-term Memory

• Limited capacity memory system that retains information

for 20 to 30 seconds.
– Rehearsal can extend duration (e.g., Inculcation).
– Peterson & Peterson (1959).
– Most information required for short-time (e.g., traffic light) and
then discarded.
• Capacity is 7 ± 2 items (Miller, 1956).
– However, items (words) are combined into chunks.
– Cowan, Chen, & Rouder (2004) propose 3 to 4 chunks available.
• Working memory: information retrieved from LTM for
temporary use (e.g., circumference of a circle).
– Modularized model of short-term memory (Baddeley, 1992).
 Long-term Memory

• Memory system involved in durable storage of

Long Term
information. Memory
– Unlimited? Permanent?
– Distinct from STM? Case study of Henry Molaison (H.M.)
Retrospective Prospec
• Information may be organized by semantic meaning:Memory Memo
– Semantic Networks: spreading activation.
– Clustering (Bousfield, 1953): Implicit
60 words, 4 semantic categories
Explicit
(animals, vegetables, names, professions)
(non- presented in random
(declarative)
order. declarative Memory
) Memory
– Case Study of M.D.
• Information may beProcedural
organized byConditioned
phonetic sound:
Semantic Episodic
– Tip-of-the-tongue: errors begin with same
Memory letter or sound;
Reflexes Memory same Memory
number of syllables and stress pattern.
 Three-box Model of Memory Storage

• Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968).

• Three functionally distinct memory stores; not associated
with distinct anatomical structures.
Encoding: Encoding:
phonemic semantic

Forgetting: Forgetting:
decay interference
 “Flashbulb” Memories

• Vivid memories of events with strong emotional component

or consequence (e.g., first kiss; traumatic event).
– Evidence that LTM is permanent?
– More accurate?
• Talarico & Rubin (2003):
– Sept 11th, 2001 & mundane event: Retested at 1, 6, or 32 weeks.
– Vividness & confidence was higher for terrorist attacks, but both
memories contained inaccuracies.
 Forgetting

• Forgetting Curves:
– Hermann Ebinghaus (1885) used nonsense syllables (BAF; ZOK).
– Tested RECALL of lists after different time intervals.
– Most forgetting occurs shortly after learning.
• Forgetting curves less steep for:
– Meaningful material (e.g., High School classmates).
– RECOGNITION tasks.
• What happens during forgetting?
– Information is unavailable (no longer in memory).
– Information is inaccessible (can’t be recalled from memory).
• Memory Retrieval.
– Retrieval cue: stimulus that aid recall.
 Decay & Interference

• Decay: information stored is eventually lost unless

accessed and rehearsed.
– More indicative of sensory and STM
• Interference: similar pieces of information interfere
with one another in either storage or retrieval.
– Retroactive Interference: recent information interferes with
retrieval of existing information (Distributed vs. Massed
practice).
– Proactive interference: existing information interferes with
storage of new information (mispronunciations; maiden
names).
– More indicative of LTM.
 Serial Position Effects

• Words occurring early and late in the series are more

likely to be recalled.
– Primacy effect: words already processed (transferred to LTM).
– Recency effect: words still in STM.
 Encoding Specificity Principle (ST)

• Endel Tulving, University of Toronto.

• Recall of information is better when conditions during
encoding and retrieval are similar.
– External specificity: memories are easier to retrieve when
context of retrieval matches context at time of encoding.
• Names.
• Something from another room.
– Internal specificity: retrieval is better when one’s mental,
emotional, or physical state matches state at time of encoding.
• Mood.
• Alcohol.
– Stronger for free recall than recognition.
 Eyewitness Testimony (ST)

• Loftus & Palmer (1974): Car accident film.

– Leading questions (that presuppose a truth) can change memory
of events and create false memories!
– Eyewitness testimony needs independent corroboration!
 Children’s Testimony (ST)
Garven et. al. (1998)
• Children’s memory is equal to adult memory, but children
are more suggestible. “Did you see the man shove the
teacher?”
• Childhood testimony of abuse:
– Increase of reported child abuse in 70s and 80s; many cases
were found to be fabricated; were the children lying?
– Police interrogations look for confirmatory evidence not
exculpatory.
• Repeat questions.
• Disappointed if no allegation; praise for making allegations.
• Imagination inflation: “Suppose there was abuse…”
• Confabulation: “Other’s remember abuse…”