Composites

There is a great need for materials with special properties with

emergence of new technologies. However, conventional engineering
materials are unable to meet this requirement of special properties like
high strength and low density materials for aircraft applications. Thus,
emerged new class of engineering materials – composites.
Unfortunately, there is no widely accepted definition for a composite
material. For the purpose of this module, the following definition is
adopted: any multiphase material that is artificially made and exhibits a
significant proportion of the properties of the constituent phases.
Composites

Composites are, thus, made by combining two distinct engineering

materials in most cases:
one is called matrix that is continuous and surrounds the other phase –
dispersed phase.
The properties of composites are a function of the properties of the
constituent phases, their relative amounts, and size-and-shape of
dispersed phase.
Composites

For ease of recognition, composite materials are classified based on

different criteria like:
(1) type of matrix material – metal matrix composites, polymer matrix
composites and ceramic matrix composites
(2) size-and-shape of dispersed phase – particle-reinforced composites,
fiber-reinforced composites and structural composites.
It is understandable that properties of composite materials are nothing
but improved version of properties of matrix materials due to presence
of dispersed phase.
Particle-reinforced composites

This class of composites is most widely used composites mainly

because they are widely available and cheap.
They are again two kinds: dispersion-strengthened and particulate-
reinforced composites.
These two classes are distinguishable based upon strengthening
mechanism – dispersion-strengthened composites and particulate
composites.
Particle-reinforced composites

In dispersion-strengthened composites, particles are comparatively

smaller, and are of 0.01-0.1μm in size.
Here the strengthening occurs at atomic/molecular level i.e. mechanism
of strengthening is similar to that for precipitation hardening in metals
where matrix bears the major portion of an applied load, while
dispersoids hinder/impede the motion of dislocations.
Examples: thoria (ThO2) dispersed Ni-alloys (TD Ni-alloys) with high-
temperature strength; SAP (sintered aluminium powder) – where
aluminium matrix is dispersed with extremely small flakes of alumina
(Al2O3).
Particle-reinforced Particulate-reinforced
composites composites
Particulate composites

Particulate composites are other class of particle-reinforced composites.

These contain large amounts of comparatively coarse particles.
These composites are designed to produce unusual combinations of
properties rather than to improve the strength.
Mechanical properties, such as elastic modulus, of particulate
composites achievable are in the range defined by rule of mixtures as
follows:
Upper bound is represented by: Ec (u)= EmVm +EpVp

And lower bound is represented by: Ec (l)=

Particulate composites

Where,
E denote elastic modulus and
V denote volume fractions respectively
while c, m, and p represent composite, matrix and particulate phases. A
schematic diagram of these bounds is shown in the figures in previous
slides.
Rule-of-mixture bounds
Particulate composites

Particulate composites are used with all three material types – metals,
polymers and ceramics.
Cermets contain hard ceramic particles dispersed in a metallic matrix.
Eg.: tungsten carbide (WC) or titanium carbide (TiC) embedded cobalt
or nickel used to make cutting tools.
Polymers are frequently reinforced with various particulate materials
such as carbon black. When added to vulcanized rubber, carbon black
enhances toughness and abrasion resistance of the rubber.
Aluminium alloy castings containing dispersed SiC particles are widely
used for automotive applications including pistons and brake
applications.
Particulate composites

Concrete is most commonly used particulate composite.

It consists of cement as binding medium and finely dispersed
particulates of gravel in addition to fine aggregate (sand) and water.
It is also known as Portland cement concrete. Its strength can be
increased by additional reinforcement such as steel rods/mesh.
Fiber-reinforced composites

Most fiber-reinforced composites provide improved strength and other

mechanical properties and strength-to-weight ratio by incorporating
strong, stiff but brittle fibers into a softer, more ductile matrix.
The matrix material acts as a medium to transfer the load to the fibers,
which carry most off the applied load.
The matrix also provides protection to fibers from external loads and
atmosphere.
Fiber-reinforced composites

These composites are classified as either continuous or discontinuous.

Generally, the highest strength and stiffness are obtained with
continuous reinforcement.
Discontinuous fibers are used only when manufacturing economics
dictate the use of a process where the fibers must be in this form.
The mechanical properties of fiber-reinforced composites depend not
only on the properties of the fiber but also on the degree of which an
applied load is transmitted to the fibers by the matrix phase.
Length of fibers, their orientation and volume fraction in addition to
direction of external load application affects the mechanical properties
of these composites.
Effect of fiber length: Some critical length (lc) is necessary for effective
strengthening and stiffening of the composite material, which is defined
as:

σ*f – ultimate/tensile strength of the fiber, d – diameter of the fiber, τc –

interface bond strength. Fibers for which l >> lc (normally l >15 lc) are
termed as continuous, discontinuous or short fibers on the other hand.
Effect of fiber orientation and concentration: with respect to orientation,
two extremes possibilities are – parallel alignment and random
alignment.
Continuous fibers are normally aligned, whereas discontinuous fibers
are randomly or partially orientated.
Two instants of loading are: longitudinal loading and transverse loading.
Continuous fiber composites

Under longitudinal loading, by assuming that deformation of both

matrix and fiber is the same i.e. isostrain condition, rule-of-mixtures
results in the following:

where Am/Ac and Af/Ac are the area fractions of the matrix and fiber
phases respectively. In the composite, if matrix and fiber are all of equal
length, area fractions will be equal to volume fractions. Thus,

σc = σmVm + σfVf
Continuous fiber composites

When the isostrain assumption is taken into account, the above equation
transforms into

The ratio of the load carried by the fibers to that carried by the matrix is
given by
Continuous fiber composites

In case of transverse loading, it is assumed that both matrix and fiber

will experience the equal stress i.e. isostress condition. Then the
modulus of the composite is given by:

Longitudinal tensile strength: as mentioned earlier, matrix material is

softer i.e. fibers strain less and fail before the matrix. And once the
fibers have fractured, majority of the load that was borne by fibers is
now transferred to the matrix. Based on this criterion the following
equation can be developed for longitudinal strength of the composite:
Continuous fiber composites

where σ’m – stress in the matrix at fiber failure, σ*f – fiber tensile
strength.
Whereas longitudinal strength is dominated by fiber strength, a variety
of factors will have a significant influence on the transverse strength.
These include properties of both the fiber and matrix, interface bond
strength, and the presence of voids.
Discontinuous and aligned fiber composites

Even though reinforcement efficiency is lower for discontinuous fiber

composites than continuous fiber composites, discontinuous and aligned
fiber composites are commercially gaining an important place.
The longitudinal strength of these composites is given by:

where τc – smaller of
either the fiber-matrix
bond strength or the
matrix shear yield
strength.
Discontinuous and randomly orientated fiber composites

Reinforcement efficiency of these fiber composites is difficult to

calculate, and is usually characterized by a parameter known as fiber
efficiency parameter, K. K depends on Vf and the Ef/Em ratio. If rule-of-
mixtures can be applied, elastic modulus of these composites is given
by:
Structural composites

These are special class of composites, usually consists of both

homogeneous and composite materials.
Properties of these composites depend not only on the properties of the
constituents but also on geometrical design of various structural
elements.
Two classes of these composites widely used are: laminar composites
and sandwich structures.
Structural composites- Laminar Composites

Laminar composites: there are composed of two-dimensional

sheets/layers that have a preferred strength direction.
These layers are stacked and cemented together according to the
requirement.
Materials used in their fabrication include: metal sheets, cotton, paper,
woven glass fibers embedded in plastic matrix, etc.
Examples: thin coatings, thicker protective coatings, claddings,
bimetallics, laminates. Many laminar composites are designed to
increase corrosion resistance while retaining low cost, high strength or
light weight.
Sandwich Structures

These consist of thin layers of a facing material joined to a light weight

filler material. Neither the filler material nor the facing material is
strong or rigid, but the composite possesses both properties. Example:
corrugated cardboard.
The faces bear most of the in-plane loading and also any transverse
bending stresses.
Typical face materials include Al-alloys, fiber-reinforced plastics,
titanium, steel and plywood.
Sandwich Structures

The core serves two functions –

It separates the faces and resists deformations perpendicular to the face
plane;
Provides a certain degree of shear rigidity along planes that are
perpendicular to the faces.
Typical materials for core are: foamed polymers, synthetic rubbers,
inorganic cements, balsa wood.
Sandwich structures are found in many applications like roofs, floors,
walls of buildings, and in aircraft for wings, fuselage and tail plane
skins.