UNIVERSITY OF ZIMBABWE

Faculty of Engineering
Department of Civil Engineering

PROJECT TITLE: INVESTIGATING THE QUALITY OF DRINKING WATER

IN THE WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM IN HARARE.
CASE STUDY OF KUWADZANA COUNCIL SCHOOLS.

PRESENTED BY: TEDDY CHIHANYA R165465W

SUPERVISORS: ENG Z. HOKO

DR S. MISI
 INTRODUCTION
Background of the study area

• Harare is the capital city of Zimbabwe. The greater area of Zimbabwe lies
between latitude 17◦46’ to 17◦52’ and longitude 30◦46‘ to 31◦12’.
• Harare has a total population of 2,123,130 in 2012, which constituted 16,25% of
the country’s total population, with an average annual growth rate of 2% for the
next 20 years.
• The annual rainfall received by the city is in the range 750-900 mm/annum and
the summer temperatures ranges from 24ºC - 31ºC.
• There are three modes of water supply in Harare water distribution system.
• Kuwadzana is supplied off the primary pumping mains.

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 Problem statement
• Harare is one of the African cities that are facing water problems due to the fact
that its main water source , Lake Chivero, is polluted.
• The 2008/9 cholera outbreak in Harare and repeated cases of typhoid last year
in Glenview has been attributed to poor drinking water quality caused by poor
waste management.
• A cholera outbreak in 2008/9 in Zimbabwe mainly affecting Harare resulted in
about 4300 deaths.
• It is therefore important to study how water quality change throughout the
distribution system to consumer.

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 Justification of study
• The world health organization estimates that globally, infectious diseases that are
associated with contaminated water results in two million child death each year.
• Poor water quality might affect the customer willingness to pay water bills.
• Kuwadzana was chosen for this study because it has a significant portion of the
population in Harare which depends on it for water supply and any supply of poor water
quality to residents can have a huge effect on the public health .
• Harare is the capital city of Zimbabwe and the main port of entry for investors hence the
quality of water it produces should be closely monitored.
• Most of the people in Kuwadzana are unemployed and engaged in informal activities
which have a negative impact the environment.

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 Location of Study Area

• Kuwadzana is a high-density residential in

Harare with more than 80 000 residents and
20 000 households.

• It is located 15 km from Morton Jafray

treatment plant.

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 Research objectives

• To investigate the spatial variation of water quality in the distribution system

of Kuwadzana.
• This study is also assessing the microbial quality of drinking water at different
points in the distribution network in Kuwadzana.
• To determine the total coliforms and faecal coliforms in the distribution
system.

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 LITERATURE REVIEW
Introduction
• Water borne diseases caused by insufficient safe water supplies coupled with poor
sanitation and hygiene cause 3.4 million deaths a year, mostly among children.
• An increasing number of sources and systems used by people for drinking and
cooking water are not adequately protected from faecal contamination. (Nhapi,
2009).
• This is due to a variety of factors, including population pressure, urbanization and
the inadequate construction, operation and maintenance of water systems.

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Overview of drinking water distribution
system
• WDS is the section of the water supply system that is nearest to the
consumer and any contamination to this segment may result in a huge
threat to the public-health.
• There are several problems encountered in drinking WDS which
include nitrification and corrosion on the pipe wall.
• Since there are several factors that affect the quality if water in a
WDS, it is important to understand how these factors interrelate so
that monitoring of water quality in the system can be carried out
with greater precision.

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 Factors promoting the occurrence of
bacteria in the distribution system

• Presence of phosphorus in water distribution system.

• Water distribution systems with rough pipes have a higher potential of bacteria growth.

• Water contacts such as gaskets, pump lubricants, elastic sealants and pipe coating support the
regrowth of bacteria in WDS.

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Occurrence of Biofilms in the water distribution
System
• When microorganisms adhere and grow on surfaces of pipe walls, they
form structures referred to as biofilms.
• Attached bacteria form Extracellular Polymeric Substance or slime that
holds biofilm together.
• Biofilms also have an effect on the discolouration of water, and changes
water taste and odour (Douterelo, 2016).
• Biofilms has resulted in aesthetic problems to customer.

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 Factors affecting microbial growth in the
distribution system
Temperature: Higher water temperature contributes to deterioration of water quality because
several of the chemical reaction that occur in water are dependent on temperature
pH: is a measure of hydrogen ion concentration. It is an indicator of relative acidity or alkalinity
of water. Drinking water should have a pH between 6.5 and 8.5.
Turbidity: can indicate the presence of microbial contamination in the distribution system. A high
turbidity can be caused by corrosion, pipe breakage or an intrusion of contaminants into the
network.
Residual chlorine: the existence of residual disinfectant at particular intensities in the tap water
terminates the regrowth of micro organisms.

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 Materials and methods
• This chapter outlines research analysis and assessment methods which include sample
collecting procedures, which were used in this project in order to address research objectives.

Selection of sample sites

• For the purpose of the study, four sampling points were selected. These sites were carefully
selected in strategic zones from Kuwadzana 1, Kuwadzana 2, Kuwadzana 4 and kuwadzana 7.
• The sampling sites where divided into zones according to the proximity of the suburb from the
treatment plant.
• The quality of water deteriorates with increase in distance from the treatment plant.
• The sampling sites were divided into zones according to whether the water regularly received in
the area.

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Method of sampling in the distribution
system
• Water samples were collected at four sampling sites in the distribution
system during three campaign.
• The water samples will be collected weekly for three weeks. Sampling
campaigns were done in the morning so as to ensure physio-chemical
parameter analysis in the laboratory was done within 24 hours of sample
collection.
• To avoid mixing up of samples, each bottle was labelled accordingly soon
after sample collection and before leaving the sample site.
• The samples were transported within five hours of collection in a cooler
box with ice packs to the laboratory for water quality analysis at the Civil
Engineering Department at University of Zimbabwe.

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Method of water quality analysis

• In the study some physical parameters were measured field-tests kits and
were recorded onsite at the point of sampling because they are said to be
unstable.
• These were temperature, turbidity, pH and dissolved oxygen (DO).
• Parameters analysed in the laboratory included total nitrogen, total
phosphorus, nitrates and chemical oxygen demand.

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 Selection of sampling sites
The location of the sampling points was determined using a Mercator
projection based on the World Geodetic System (WGS) 1984 geographic
coordinates (datum).
Full name of sampling sites Description Longitudes Latitude

Kuwadzana 1 Shopping centre -17.82962 30.92725

(KW1)
Kuwadzana 2 Shopping centre -17.82476 30.93744
(KW2)
Kuwadzana 3 Household -17.82531 30.929
(KW3)
Kuwadzana 4 Household -17.82671 30.93733
(KW4)
Kuwadzana 5 Household -17.82838 30.9201
(KW5)
Kuwadzana 6 Household -17.8344 30.93073
(KW6)
Kuwadzana 7 Household -17.83525 30.91455
(KW7)
Kuwadzana Extension Household -17.82988 30.89988
(KWEXT)

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Selection of water quality parameters
Parameter Reason for selection
pH One of the factors that affect algal bloom is pH
(Teneva, 2010).
Temperature There is complex combination of factors which
cause algal bloom and these include temperature
(Teneva, 2010).
Turbidity Can indicate presence of microbial contamination
in the water distribution network, (Aghaarabi,
2014).
Nitrogen Phytoplankton dominance is affected by low
Nitrogen, N/P ratio
Phosphorus Cyanobacteria growth occur in eutrophic states
with N/P ratio of 10-15, and it corelates with the
concentration of Nitrogen and Phosphorus (Merel,
2013).
COD COD gives the presence of organic pollutants in
water (APHA, 1998).
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Sampling points on the Kuwadzana
water distribution system

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 Method of water quality analysis
parameter Instrument/ Method Instrument Model Standard Method Number

Temperature Digital thermometer KM 3002 APHA 2550#49

Ph Ph ion meter Hanna H19103 APHA4500-H+

Turbidity Turbidimeter Hanna H98708 APHA 2130#15

E.C Portable Multimeter Hanna H19812 APHA2510#35

Residual chlorine Photometer ELE Paqua lab APHA 4500-Cl

Nitrates Spectrophotometer HACH RD200 APHA4500-NO3+

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 Quality Assurance and Control
Step
Use of specialised equipment
Sample collection
Storage and transport
Sample Analysis
Quality Assurance Quality control
Caliberation procedures – all water Limits placed on calibrated results
monitoring equipment was calibrated
Sterilisation of all sampling bottles. Any equipment failing calibration was
not used
Following methods outlined in water Use of field blanks
quality sampling manual (APHA, 1998)
Controlled and accurate labelling for Replicates on samples(double)
each location
Replicates on samples(double)
Defined methods for storage of samples Fridge in good condition
(e.g. use of ice packs, and minimisation
of time between collection and storage)
Methods based on Standard Methods for Use of calibration standards and
the Examination of Water and laboratory blanks
Wastewater (APHA, 1998)
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Statistical Analysis
• The Statistical Package for Social Science(SPSS) was
employed to analyse the data statically for all water quality
parameters.
• The data obtained onsite were first entered on Microsoft excel
and then exported to SPSS 2
• The data from the selected water quality parameters was
statically analysed using descriptive statistics methods.
• Summary statistics such as mean, minima, maxima, standard
deviation and coefficient of variance were generated.

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RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
• Results of the physio-chemical and biological analysis of water
samples collected from field sampling on 13 March 2019 are
presented and discussed in this chapter.
• The results that are discussed in this section were obtained in
the field and in the laboratory as well.
• The average values for all measured water quality parameters
in Kuwadzana water distribution system are shown in table
below and those considered in this study are pH, turbidity, free
residual chlorine, total phosphorus and total nitrogen.

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 Turbidity Free Residual Chlorine
Parameter Temperature (°C) pH COD (mg/L) TDS (mg/L) TN (mg/L) TP(mg/L)
(NTU) (mg/L)

KW 2 21.90 6.99 1.27 12.00 159.74 0.35 0.06 0.10

KW 4 21.80 6.99 0.77 11.67 147.50 0,402 0.06 0.07

KW 5 21.00 7.00 1.14 12.33 162.47 0.49 0.05 0.06

KW 7 22.30 7.11 1.07 13.33 172.37 0.36 0.05 0.23

MIN 21.00 6.99 0.77 11.67 147.50 0.35 0.05 0.06

MAX 22.30 7.11 1.27 13.33 172.37 0.49 0.06 0.23

MEAN 21.75 7.02 1.06 12.33 160.52 0.40 0.06 0.11

SD 0.54 0.06 0.21 0.72 10.24 0.08 0.01 0.14

CV 0.03 0.01 0.20 0.06 0.06 0.19 0.11 1.24

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pH
• The pH of the distribution water ranged from 6.98 to 7.01 with an
average value of 7.00 and a coefficient of variance of 0.5%.
• All sampling sites has measured pH within both SAZ (1997) and
WHO (2011) guideline value range from 6.5 to 8.5. the chemistry of
water is affected by pH, with a high increasing corrosion rates of
pipes (Aghaarabi, 2014).

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Turbidity
• For the entire distribution system in Kuwadzana, turbidity
ranged from 0.74 to 1.30 NTU with an average of 0.94% NTU
and coefficient of variance of 20%.
• The WHO (2011) and SAZ (1997) guideline for turbidity is 1 NTU.
• Turbidity in water may be caused by both organic and inorganic
materials that may be suspended in the water and a turbidity above
5 NTU may not be pleasant to a customer (Ampofo, 2013).
• A study by Nhongo (2015) on the Harare distribution system found
that the average turbidity is in the range of 0.49-18.1 NTU.

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Free residual chlorine
• For the entire distribution system in Kuwadzana the free residual
chlorine ranged from 0.06 to 0.23 mg/L with an average value of
0.11 mg/L and coefficient of variance of 1.24%.
• The recommended WHO guideline for free residual chlorine is
from 0.2 to 0.5 mg/L (WHO, 2011).
• Zone A only had an average free residual chlorine below the WHO
guideline.

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Chemical oxygen demand
• For Kuwadzana distribution system COD concentration ranged
from 11.67 to 13.33 mg/L with an average value of 12.33 mg/L with
a coefficient of variance of 6%.
• During the study period there were numerous occasions on which
water supply was shutdown resulting in intermittent water supply
especially during weekends.
• This could have resulted in contamination of water through
groundwater and dirty water intrusions into the line when normal
water supply resumed leading to high COD values.

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REFERENCES
• WHO, 2011. Guidlines for drinking water quality, Geneva: World
Health Organisation.
• ZIMSTAT, 2015. Population projections thermatic report.
s.l.:Government Printers.
• Nhongo, K., 2015. Investigating the formulation of disinfectant
by-products in urban water distribution system., Harare: MSc
Thesis University of Zimbabwe.
• Hoko, Z., 2005. An assessment of the water quality of drinking
water in rural districts in Zimbabwe. The case of Gokwe South,
Nkayi, Lupane, and Mwenezi districts. 30 ed. Zimbabwe: Physics
and Chemistry of the earth.

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THANK YOU

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