BIOLOGICAL

MACROMOLECULES
1.CARBOHYDRATES
- The ratio of the chemical formula of
carbohydrates is C:H:O is 1:2:1 or
could be rewritten as Cn(H2O)n

- Other term is SACCHARIDE, latin

word saccharum to a sugar-a
common carbohydrate
CLASSIFICATION
▫Simple Sugars
Monosaccharide and
Disaccharides
▫Complex Sugars
Polysaccharides
• Carbohydrates are the primary energy
source of the human body. The different
saccharides that humans eat are
converted to glucose which can be readily
used by the body.
• Around 4 kilocalories is derived from one
gram of carbohydrate. The excess
carbohydrate consumed is converted to
glycogen which is stored in the liver and
in muscles. Glycogen is a slow-releasing
carbohydrate.
 Monosaccharide (one saccharide)
• Glucose Used in dextrose, blood sugar; the
form utilized by the human body
• Galactose Found in milk and milk products
• Fructose Found in fruits and honey

• all have the same chemical formula of

C6H12O6 and its structure is the one that made
the difference in its properties.
• For example, galactose (163-169oC) has a
higher melting point than glucose (148-155oC).
Glucose is sweeter than galactose.
• Melting point of glucose is for β-D-glucose.
 Disaccharide (two saccharides)
• Maltose Glucose + Glucose Found in malt
• Sucrose Glucose + Fructose Found in
regular table sugar, sugarcane, and sugar
beet
• Lactose Glucose + Galactose Found in milk
and milk products

• Individual saccharides are connected via

glycosidic bonds.
• A water molecule is released when two
saccharides are combined.
 Polysaccharide (many
saccharides)
A. Starch / Amylose
• Composed of 250 - 400 glucose
molecules connected via α-1-4-
• glycosidic bond
• Storage form of glucose in plants
b. Amylopectin
•Like amylose but has more
branches attached via α-1-6
glycosidic bond
•Storage form of glucose in
plants
c.Glycogen
• Composed of more glucose, more
highly branched (same type of
bond as amylopectin)
• Storage form of glucose in
animals, stored in the liver and
muscles
d.Cellulose
• Composed of glucose units
connected via β-1-4 glycosidic
bond, linear chain arranged in a
parallel manner
• Structural material in plants--cell
wall in wood, wood fiber
• Cannot be digested by humans
Fischer structure of various
monosaccharides
Haworth Structure of Glucose
POLYSACCHARIDES
2.PROTEIN
• good energy source
• Proteins have other structural and
enzymatic functions that are
important to the human body.
They act as transport, storage and
as antibodies.
• Protein came from the Greek term proteios
meaning first.
• One can think of protein as the beginning of life.
From egg albumin being pure protein to sperm
and egg cells, we all start from proteins. Proteins
are composed of four elements, namely, carbon
(C), hydrogen (H), oxygen(O2) and nitrogen(N)
• Sulfur and other metals are sometimes also found
in proteins.
• Proteins are made up of amino acids.
• An amino acid is a molecule that has an amine
and a carboxyl group.
The structure of an amino acid:
•There are 20 amino acids.
•The combination of many
amino acids creates
protein. Amino acids are
joined together with a
peptide bond.
•Proteins are also
called
polypeptides.
The diagram below shows that water is
released in the formation of peptide
bonds.
•Different types of proteins are
composed of different
combinations of amino acids
arranged in a specific way.
• Depending on the order of the
amino acids, the protein will
acquire a certain configuration
and function.
The configuration is governed by
several factors, namely:
• a. H-bonding between amino acids
which creates either a helical
structure or a pleated sheet
• b. Disulfide bonds for amino acids
containing sulfur
• c. Salt bridges
• d. Hydrophobic and hydrophilic
tendencies
•Protein can acquire
many configurations.
Common examples:
α-helix
and
β-pleated sheets
α-helix -
β-pleated sheets - The
long polypeptide chain
doubles back on its own
running parallel
connected together by H-
bonds.
Examples of proteins and their
structure and functions are:
Fibroin / Silk protein
• Fibroin is found in silk. Silk has a
smooth and soft texture. It is one
of the strongest natural fibers
that have high resistance to
deformation.
• It is also a good insulation.
• primarily composed of β-pleated
sheets.
Collagen
•major insoluble fibrous
protein found in connective
tissues such as tendons,
ligaments, skin, cartilage and
the cornea of the eye.
•Comprises as much as 30% of
proteins in animals.
•Its strength is attributed to its
triple helix structure
comprising of α-helices braided
together.
•When several triple helices
combine, they form the fibrils
that make up connective
tissues.
Structure of Protein
Enzymes
• function to catalyze chemical
reactions.
• either speed up a reaction, lower the
needed energy for a reaction to take
place, or bind substances to their
specific partners.
• Enzymes themselves are very specific
as can be seen in their shape.
Examples of enzymes are below:
• 1. Lipase - help in digestion of fats
• 2. Pepsin - help in breaking down
proteins into peptides (smaller
units)
• 3. Sucrase - also called invertase,
help in the digestion of sugars
and starches
(a) Human Pancreatic Lipase
(b) Pepsin
(c) Sucrase or Invertase
Myoglobin
• Myoglobin is a polypeptide that stores
oxygen in muscles. It is a globular
protein comprised of 153 amino acids
in a single polypeptide chain.

• It contains a heme group which has an

iron (II) ion at its center. This is
where the oxygen is stored.
Hemoglobin
• Hemoglobin is a globular protein
that carries oxygen from the
lungs to the bloodstream.
• It is composed of four sub-units,
each containing a heme group
that enables it to transport four
oxygen molecules at a time.
“you are
what you
eat”
-protein
3.LIPIDS
• lipids provide more energy per gram
than carbohydrates and proteins (9
kilocalories of energy per gram)
• Aside from being an energy source or
storage, lipids also serve other
functions such as material for cell
membrane, insulation to maintain
body temperature, aid in digestion,
and as signal molecules.
• Lipid is derive from Greek word
“lipos” which means fat.
• Lipids are a family of biomolecules
having varied structures.
• They are grouped together simply
because of their hydrophobic
property (water-fearing).
• They are soluble in non-polar
solvents such as ether, acetone, and
benzene.
Lipids can be classified into
four categories:

•a. Wax
•b. Triglycerides
•c. Phospholipids
•d. Steroids
Fatty acids
•essential to understanding
lipids.
• Fatty acids are long-chain
carboxylic acids that are
insoluble in water.
•Fatty acids can be saturated or
unsaturated.
•Saturated fatty acids
contain single bonds in
its hydro-carbon chain

•Unsaturated fatty acids

contain double bonds.
To remember!
• As “saturated” with hydrogen. All the
carbon molecules have two hydrogen
atoms attached to it.
• Saturated fatty acids allow their
molecules to fit close together and
form strong attraction.
• Usually have high melting points and
are solid at room temperature.
To remember!
• As “saturated” with hydrogen. All the
carbon molecules have two hydrogen
atoms attached to it.
• Unsaturated fatty acids are bent
because of the double bond
• Often irregularly shaped.
• Have a low melting point and are
liquid at room temperature.
•Lipids containing
either saturated or
unsaturated fatty
acids somehow are
able to retain these
properties.
Triglyceride
•Fat and oil are the most
common examples of lipids.
•They are under triglycerides
because they are composed
of glycerol and three fatty
acids.
 Fat Oil
• refers to solid refers to liquid
triglyceride usually triglycerides from plant
from animal sources sources.
such as meat, milk,
butter, margarine, Examples: olive oil, corn
• eggs, and cheese. oil, sunflower oil, and
soybean oil.
Animal fat contains high
percentages of saturated
fatty acids while plant oil
are mostly unsaturated
fatty acids.
Phospholipids
• contains glycerol, two fatty acids,
and a phosphate group.

• Unlike other lipids, phospholipids

have a polar and non-polar end.

• This property allows it to transport

molecules in the bloodstream.

• It is also a major component in the

cell membrane.
•The two parts :
• the hydrophilic head
(phosphate group) and
hydrophobic tail (fatty
acid group).

•This dual property allows

phospholipids to form a
phospholipid bilayer.
 “What you eat
becomes who you
are”
4. Nucleic Acid
•Plays an essential role in the
storage, transfer, and
expression of genetic
information.

•Nucleic acids are also known

as polynucleotides
 DISCOVERY OF
NUCLEIC ACIDS
• discovered by a 24 year- old Swiss
physician named Friedrich Miescher
in 1868.
• He was puzzled that an unknown
substance in white blood cells did not
resemble carbohydrates, proteins, or
lipids.
• He was able to isolate the
substance from the nucleus and
initially called it nuclein.
• He eventually was able to break
down nuclein into protein and
nucleic acids.
• He found out that nucleic acids
contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen,
nitrogen, and phosphorus.
•common examples of
nucleic acids are DNA
(deoxyribonucleic
acid) and
RNA(ribonucleic
acid).
A nucleotide has three
parts:
•a. Nitrogenous base
•b. Five-carbon
carbohydrate or sugar
•c. Phosphate group
The nitrogenous bases of DNA and
RNA are:
• DNA’s :
Adenine (A), Guanine (G),
Cytosine (C), and Thymine (T)

• RNA’s :
Adenine (A), Guanine (G),
Cytosine (C), and Uracil (U)
Sugar Group

•DNA has
deoxyribose while
RNA has ribose
• DNA is double stranded and RNA is
single stranded.
• The bases are paired up
• C and G have three H-bonds between
them, and A and T have two.
• Hydrogen bonding is greatly responsible
for the shape of both RNA and DNA.
• The different nucleotides are connected
in a chain via phosphodiester bonds.
• The sequence of the base pairs in
one’s DNA is unique for every
organism (except for identical
twins).

• The DNA and the cell containing

it determine the kind of protein
that will be synthesized.
• The different proteins are then
responsible for the processes
that carbohydrates, lipids,
proteins, and other substances
in the body undertake.
•1. Why are
nucleic acids
named so?
•-Around 1868, Friedrich
Miescher isolated an
unknown weakly acidic
substance from the
nucleus of white blood
cells, hence the term
nucleic acid.
•2. What
comprises
nucleic acids?
 Nucleic acids
•-

are composed
of nucleotides.
•3. What is
another term for
nucleic acids?
•Nucleic acids are
also known as
polynucleotides.
•4. What are the
three parts of a
nucleotide?
•- A nucleotide has
a five-carbon
sugar, a phosphate
group and a
nitrogenous base
•5. What are
common
examples of
nucleic acids?
•- DNA
and RNA
•6. What is
the primary
role of
DNA?
•- It is the
blueprint of life.
Our genetic code
is found in the
DNA.
•7. How does
RNA help in
protein
synthesis?
•- RNA helps in
protein synthesis by
carrying out the
instructions
encoded in the
DNA.
•8. What are
the bases of
DNA? of
RNA?
• DNA: Adenine,
Guanine, Tyrosine,
Cytosine
•RNA: Adenine,
Guanine, Uracil,
Cytosine
•9. How are
DNA and
RNA similar?
•- They have the same three
bases: A, G, C.
•- They both have nucleotides
containing one phosphate
group, a five-carbon sugar, and
a nitrogenous base.
•- Both are used in the
manufacture of proteins
•10. How are
DNA and RNA
different?
•- DNA is double stranded
while RNA is single strand
•- DNA has deoxyribose for
its sugar while RNA has
ribose
•- DNA has thymine while
RNA has uracil
ACTIVITY: Table Summary
Description Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids

Elements found
in these molecule
are...(1pt)
The role/
function of this
biomolecule is
/are..(3 pts)
This biomolecule
could be found in
foods
like...(atleast 2,
1 pt each)
 Description Carbohydrates Proteins Lipids Nucleic Acids

The sub-units of
these molecules
are (1pt)
The different
kinds of these
molecule are
(3 pts)
Examples of
these
biomolecules are
(give atleast 2,
1 pt each)
I. True or False (1 pt each)
• 1. Sucrose is a disaccharide
• 2. Starch is composed of many
glucose units
• 3. Fructose is also known as blood
sugar
• 4. Keratin is easily dissolved in
water
• 5. Proteins are made up of
nucleotides
• 6. The iron group of hemoglobin is
called a heme group
• 7. A nucleotide has three parts:
nitrogenous base, sugar, and
phosphate group
• 8. DNA has a double helix structure
• 9. Triglyceride is a protein
• 10. Generally, unsaturated fatty
acids remain solid at room
temperature
Essay Questions:
• 1. How is glucose different from cellulose?
Give your answer in terms of structure and
properties.
• 2. Draw the structure of collagen and
describe how its structure relates to its
function as a connective tissue?
• 3. Draw a sketch of a phospholipid bilayer
and describe why the structure is such.
• 4. What are the similarities and
differences of DNA and RNA?
TABLE SUMMARY
 ANSWER

•1)TRUE •6)TRUE
•2)TRUE •7)TRUE
•3)FALSE •8)TRUE
•4)FALSE •9)FALSE
•5)FALSE •10)FALSE