Chapter 16

Exploring, Displaying,
and Examining Data

McGraw-Hill/Irwin Copyright © 2011 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All Rights Reserved.
Learning Objectives

Understand . . .
• That exploratory data analysis techniques
provide insights and data diagnostics by
emphasizing visual representations of the data.
• How cross-tabulation is used to examine
relationships involving categorical variables,
serves as a framework for later statistical
testing, and makes an efficient tool for data
visualization and later decision-making.

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Exploratory Data Analysis

Exploratory Confirmatory

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Data Exploration, Examination,
and Analysis in the Research
Process

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Frequency tables, bar charts and
pie charts
• A frequency table is a simple device
for arraying data. It arrays category
codes from lowest value to highest
value, with columns for count
(frequency), percent, valid percent
(percent when missing data is
extracted), and cumulative percent.

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Frequency of Ad Recall

Value Label Value Frequency Percent Valid Cumulative

Percent Percent

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Bar Chart

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Pie Chart

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Frequency Table

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Histogram
The histogram is the conventional solution for the
display of interval-ratio data. Histograms are used
when it is possible to group the variable’s values into
intervals. A histogram is a graphical bar chart that
groups continuous data values into equal intervals, with
one bar for each interval.
Histograms are useful
for 1) displaying all
intervals in a
distribution, even those
without observed
values, and 2)
examining the shape of
the distribution for
skewness, kurtosis,
and the modal pattern
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 Stem-and-Leaf Display

•In contrast to histograms, which lose

information by grouping data values 5 455666788889
into intervals, the stem-and-leaf 6 12466799
presents actual data values that can 7 02235678
be inspected directly, without the use 8 02268
9
of enclosed bar or asterisks as the
10 24
representation medium. 11 018
•Visualization is the second advantage 12 3
of stem-and-leaf displays. The range 13 1
of values is apparent at a glance, and 14 06
15 3
both shape and spread impressions
16 36
are immediate. Patterns in the data are 17
easily observed. 18 3
19
20 6
21 8
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Pareto Diagram

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Boxplot Components

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Diagnostics with Boxplots

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Boxplot Comparison

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Mapping

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Geograph:
Digital Camera Ownership

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SPSS Cross-Tabulation

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Percentages in
Cross-Tabulation

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Cross-Tabulation with Control
and Nested Variables

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