 In traditional communication system the modulation

technique are Amplitude Modulation (AM), Frequency

Modulation (FM) and Phase Modulation (PM).
 In analog modulation both the carrier and modulating
signals are analog.
 MODULATION
In the process of modulation, some characteristics of a high
frequency sine wave (the carrier) is varied in accordance with
the instantaneous value of the (modulating) signal. Such a sine
wave may be represented by the equation e = E sin (t + ),
where e is the instantaneous value of the sine wave, called the
carrier; E is its maximum amplitude,  is the angular velocity
or angular frequency, while  is the phase relation with respect
to some reference. Any of these last three characteristics, or
parameters, of the carrier may be varied by the modulating
signal, giving rise to amplitude, frequency or phase modulation,
respectively.
AMPLITUDE MODULATED TRANSMITTER .
IN AM TRANSMITTERS, THE INSTANTANEOUS AMPLITUDE
OF THE RF OUTPUT SIGNAL IS VARIED IN PROPORTION
TO THE MODULATING SIGNAL. THE MODULATING SIGNAL
MAY CONSIST OF MANY FREQUENCIES OF VARIOUS
AMPLITUDES AND PHASES, SUCH AS THE SIGNALS
MAKING UP YOUR OWN SPEECH PATTERN.
 AMPLITUDE MODULATION THEORY
In amplitude modulation, the amplitude of a carrier signal is
varied by the modulating voltage, whose frequency is invariably
lower than that of the carrier. In practice, the carrier may be
high-frequency (HF) while the modulating sig is audio. Formally,
AM is defined as a system of modulation in which the amplitude
of the carrier is made proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating voltage.
AMPLITUDE MODULATION
Fig2.1
vm  Vm sin mt  m  vm  Vm sin mt

vc  Vc sin ct  c  vc  Vc sin ct

vmo  V sin ct

V  Vc  vm  V  Vc  vm 

vmo  Vc 1 m sin mt sin ct

 Waveforms related to Amplitude
Modulation

2 sin A sin B  cos( A  B)  cos( A  B)

 vmo  Vc sin 2f ct  2 cos 2  f c  f m t  2 cos 2  f c  f m t
mVc mVc

Where mod index m is defined as :- Called

m
Vm m  1, whenVm  Vc DSB-
FC
Vc m  1, whenVm  Vc
m  1, whenVm  Vc Vmax  Vmin
m
Vmax  Vmin
C

LSB USB

m m

c - m c c + m
DISTORTS THE ENVELOPE
VOICE CLIPPED OFF
Freq Spec & BW of AM Wave
Freq domain representation of a sig can be obtained by
applying FT tech.These tech translate the signal from its time
domain to its corresponding freq domain.The freq domain
representation gives the details of the various freq-components
in the signal, their amplitudes, power and BW.

Freq spectrum of an AM Wave

 BW & POWER CONTENT OF AM WAVE

BW   f c  f m    f c  f m 
2 Amp(Peak )
V 
Ptot   PLSB  PUSB
c Vrms
2
2R
Avg Power in sine wave of peak value
2
Vc2  mVc 
Pc  2 2  2 2 2
  
2R m V 1 m
PSSB c
  Pc
R 4 2R 4
 Eff Vol & Current for AM

 m2  m2
Ptot  Pc 1   &  AM  2 100%
 2  m 2

Vtot2 I tot2 R
 Ptot  Efficiency = Psb/Ptot
2R 2

2
m m2
Vtot  Vc 1  I tot  I c 1
2 2
 MODN BY SEVERAL SIN WAVES

Vtot  V  V  V  ....
1
2
2
2
3
2

mtot  m  m  m  ....
2
1
2
2
2
3

PSB  PSB1  PSB2  PSB3 .....

In reality the actual Base band sig is random and its ampli and
freq vary with time. Also actual Base band sig will consists of a
number of freq. Every freq compo will modulate the carrier sig
according to its instantaneous ampl. Various freq compo will
give rise to their corresponding LSBs and USBs.
TYPES OF AM SIGNALS
 Forms of AM Sig

DSB_SC
Equation of the signal
SSB Physical appearance of the signal
Freq spec of Sig
ISB
VSB
 DSB-SC
Carrier is absent t-axis remains the reference axis of envelop.
Base band still carried by carrier by hiding it in amp variations.
Instantaneous amp still varies as per modulating sig.
Carrier sig in its un-modulated form is suppressed.
Do not get confused with the presence of carrier sig with
varying amp that appears as envelope. Envelope is resultant sum
of LSB & USB

cos 2  f c  f m t  cos 2  f c  f m t
mVc mVc
vmo  Vc sin ct  2 2

When two sinusoidal signals with diff freq and equal

magnitude are summed up, the amplitude of the resultant signal
varies at diff time instants
Amplitude variation in the resulting envelope is because two
side bands have different freq.
Most imp part is phase reversal at the zero-crossing points
It occurs because whenever modulating sig changes sign the
carrier is multiplied by a negative sign causing a phase sift of
180 degrees
 FREQ SPEC of DSB-SC SIGNALS

Freq spec contains only two side bands.

Freq-spec of a DSB-SC
 Double Side Band Suppressed Carrier
(DSB-SC) Modulation

• The carrier component in full AM or DSB-LC does not convey any

information. Hence it may be removed or suppressed during the
modulation process to attain higher power efficiency.

• The trade off of achieving a higher power efficiency using DSB-SC

is at the expense of requiring a complex and expensive receiver due
to the absence of carrier in order to maintain transmitter/receiver
synchronization.
 SSB
DSB-SC sig has two side bands carrying same info.If either of
these bands is suppressed the info transmitted will not be
affected.
There is a large amt of power saving in SSB which is equal to
83.32%.

Eq of SSB

vDSB _ FC  Vc sin ct  2 cos 2 f c  f m t  2 cos 2 f c  f m t

mVc mVc

cos 2  f c  f m t & vSSBU  cos 2  f c  f m t

mVc mVc
vSSB L  2 2
Phy Appearance of
Single-Tone SSB
sig for LSB

Phy Appearance of
Single-Tone SSB
sig for USB

Phy Appearance of
Multi-Tone SSB sig
for LSB
 MULTI-TONE SSB MOD
For example if the transmitted sig is vSSB-L and contains LSB. In
this case all the LSBs will be sel to transmit BB sig.
Tx sig sum of all LSBs contributed from each freq compo.
Amplitude of Tx sig will vary in accordance to amplitude of various LSBs

vm  Vm1 sin 1t  Vm 2 sin 2t  ....

If this sig modulates
Vm1 Vm 2
the carrier than the
modulated sig will vc  Vc sin ct m1  & m2 
be given by Vc Vc

vmo  Vc sin  ct  2 cos 2 f c  f m1 t  2 cos 2 f c  f m1 t

m1Vc m1Vc

cos 2  f c  f m 2 t  cos 2  f c  f m 2   ...

m2Vc m2Vc

2 2
 vSSB L  2 cos 2 f c  f m1 t  2 cos 2 f c  f m 2 t
m1Vc m2Vc

cos 2  f c  f m1 t  2 c cos 2  f c  f m 2 t
m1Vc mV
v SSB _ U

2 2

Freq spec of a multi-tone SSB sig for LSBs is shown in fig.In

this case it is assumed that:-

Vm1  Vm 2 & f m1  f m 2

BW  f c   f c  f m 2   f m 2
Freq Spectrums of single-
tone-SSB and of Multi-
tone SSB.
COMPARISON OF BANDWIDTHS OF CONVENTIONAL
AM AND SSB VOICE CHANNELS
 INDEPENDENT SIDE BAND (ISB)

v m1
 Vm1 sin  m1t
vm 2  Vm 2 sin  m 2t
& carrier  vc  Vc sin  ct
This carrier is simultaneously mod by two modulating freq.The two
DSB-FC sig so generated are :-

cos 2  f c  f m1 t  1 c cos 2  f c  f m1 t
m1Vc mV
vDSB _ FC1  Vc sin ct  2 2

cos 2  f c  f m 2 t  2 c cos 2  f c  f m 2 t
m2Vc mV
vDSB _ FC 2  Vc sin ct  2 2

Note:In ISB one side band from each DSB-FC sig is accommodated on
freq spec
In ISB it is necessary to select one side band from each DSB-SC
signal and accommodate them on the freq spec. The carrier sig
is also suppressed to have SSB sig.If the LSB is chosen from
eqn 1 to generate lower band then we have

vSSB1 L  2 cos 2 f c  f m1 t

m1Vc

cos 2  f c  f m 2 t
m2Vc
v SSB2 U

2

When these two sig are combined we get the final ISB

vISB  2 cos 2 f c  f m1 t  2 cos 2 f c  f m 2 t

m1Vc m2Vc

BW ISB
 f m2  f m1
 Comparison of Amplitude Modulation methods

Full AM (or DSB-LC)

- Sidebands are transmitted in full with the carrier.
- Simple to demodulate / detect
- Poor power efficiency
- Wide bandwidth ( twice the bandwidth of the information
signal)
- Used in commercial AM radio broadcasting, one
transmitter and many receivers.
 Comparison of Amplitude Modulation methods

DSB-SC
- Less transmitted power than full AM and all the transmitted
power is useful.
- Requires a coherent carrier at the receiver; This results in
increased complexity in the detector(i.e. synchroniser)
- Suited for point to point communication involving one
transmitter and one receiver which would justify the use of
increased receiver complexity.
 Comparison of Amplitude Modulation methods

SSB
- Good bandwidth utilization (message signal bandwidth =
modulated signal bandwidth)
- Good power efficiency
- Demodulation is harder as compares to full AM; Exact
filter design and coherent demodulation are required
- Preferred in long distance transmission of voice signals
FREQUENCY MODULATION
 FREQUENCY MODULATION

Defn & Phy Appearance

Carrier freq is no more constant

Modulating sig is hidden in the varn of
the freq of the carrier
Freq
dev
curve
 EQ OF FM WAVE
First step in designing a sys is to prepare its
mathematical model. For sake of simplicity of math
treatment of FM sig , modulating sig is taken as pure
cosine wave.
vm  Vm cos  mt
vc  Vc sin  ct
In FM the carrier freq does not remain constant
after modulation but varies in proportion to the
instantaneous amplitudes of the modulating sig.
Amp and phase of the carrier remain constant
after modulation
 Therefore eq of FM can be written as

v  Vc sin i
d i t
i   i   i dt
dt
0

Since the instantaneous angular freq of the FM

sig is proportional to the instantaneous
amplitude of the modulating signal and hence
the expression can be written as
 i   c  k f vm
where k f is constant of proportionality.
Substituting this we get

i   c  k f Vm cos  mt

 
t
i   c  k f Vm cos mt dt
0

Vm
 i   ct  k f sin  mt  1
m

Vm
 i   ct  k f sin  mt
m
Final exp of FM wave will be

 Vm 
v  Vc sin ct  k f sin  mt 
 m 
 FREQ DEVIATION
i   c  k f Vm cos  mt
This eq gives the instantaneous angular freq of
an FM carrier. k f Vm
fi  fc  cos mt
2
Deviation in frequency in an
unmodulated carrier freq depends upon
the factor
k f Vm
cos mt
2
This in turn depends on the value of cos  mt
at any instant of time. The freq deviation is
defined as
k f Vm
fd 
2
This is the max freq deviation related to the maximum
or peak amplitude of the modulation signal.

fi  f c  f d cos mt
Substituting this eq we get
 The limiting freq of an FM wave are
obtained as

f i (max)  f c  f d ; when cos  mt  1

f i (min)  f c  f d ; when cos  mt  1
Where k f Vm
fd   , when cos mt  1
2
. The total change in the carrier freq after modulation ,
therefore is from  f d to  f d and is 2 f d and this is called
carrier swing .
 MODULATION INDEX
Substituting value of freq deviation in the expression of an FM
wave we get:
 fd 
e  Ec sin 2f ct  sin  mt 
 fm 
The ratio of the frequency deviation, fd and the
frequency of the modulating signal, fm in this eq is
known as the modulation index of FM wave. This
is designated as mf Thus:
fd
mf 
fm
 fd  m f fm

e  Ec sin 2f ct  m f sin mt 

The modulation index plays a very imp
role in deciding BW of the FM sys.

e  Ec sin ct  m f sin mt 

 DEVIATION RATIO sin( A  B)  sin A cos B  cos A sin B

Deviation Ratio, Df = Maximum permissible frequency deviation

Highest modulating frequency
f
Df 
W
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM OF AN FM SYSTEM
Final expression of FM Signal is
e  Ec sin c t  m f sin mt 
Substituting Ec=1 in this eq we get
e  sin c t  m f sin mt 
Expanding the Eq:
e  sin c t cos( m f sin mt )  cos c t sin( m f sin mt )
Constituent I Constituent II
 Constituent I = sin c t cos( m f sin mt ) 1

Constituent II = cos c t sin( m f sin mt ) 2

Consider the factor, cos (mf sinωmt) of constituent I. This factor can
be expanded using the Fourier series:

cosm f sin mt   J o m f   2 J 2 m f cos 2mt  2 J 4 (m f ) cos 4mt  ...

 2 J 2 n m f cos 2n mt  .....

3
Similarly, consider the factor, sin (mf sinωmt) of constituent II.
This factor can be expanded using the Fourier series:
sin m f sin mt   2 J1 m f sin mt  2 J 3 (m f ) sin 3mt  ...

 2 J 2 n 1 m f sin( 2n  1)mt  .....

4
 Substituting Eq 3 in Eq 1 we get

 J 0 m f   2 J 2 m f cos 2 mt  2 J 4 (m f ) cos 4 mt  ...

Constituent I= sin  c t  
 2 J 2 n m f cos 2n mt  ..... 

Constituent I = J 0 m f sin ct  2 J 2 m f sin ct. cos 2 mt  

2 J 4 (m f )sin ct. cos 4 mt   ..  2 J 2 n m f sin ct. cos 2n mt   ...

This can be further expanded to 5

2 sin A cos B  sin( A  B)  sin( A  B)
Constituent I =
J 0 m f sin ct  2 J 2 m f  sin c  2m t  sin c  2m t 
1 1 
2 2 
1 
 2 J 4 (m f )  sin c  4m t  sin c  4m t   ..
1
2 2 
 2 J 2 n m f  sin c  2nm t  sin c  2nm t   ...
1 1 
6
2 2 
Substituting Eq 4 in Eq 2 we get the expansion of Constituent II

Constituent II =
2 J1 m f cos ct sin  mt  2 J 3 (m f ) cos ct sin 3 mt  ...
 2 J 2 n1 m f cos ct sin( 2n  1) mt  .....

This can be expanded further using trigonometric identities as

Constituent II =

2 J1 m f  sin( c  m )t  sin( c  m )t 
1 1 
2 2 
 2 J 3 m f  sin( c  3m )t  sin( c  3m )t   ...
1 1 
2 2 
 1 1 
 2 J 2 n 1 m f  sin( c  (2n  1)m )t  sin( 2n  1)m )t   ...x
2 2 
this is the final expansion of constituent II. 7
 Both these constituents can be substituted to get the final
expression as

e  J o (m f ) sin c t  J 1 (m f )sin c  m t  sin c  m t 

 J 2 (m f )sin c  2m t  sin c  2m t 
 J 3 (m f )sin c  3m t  sin c  3m t 
 J 4 (m f )sin c  4m t  sin c  4m t 
 ....
 J 2 n 1 (m f )sin c  ( 2n  1)m t  sin c  2n  1m t 
 J 2 n (m f )sin c  2nm t  sin c  2nm t  8

This eq represents the entire frequency spectrum of an FM wave.

It can be clearly seen from this equation that there are an infinite
number of lower and upper side bands along with the un-modulated
carrier signal represented by sin ωc (t).
The amplitude of the carrier signal is Jo(mf), and the
amplitude of the USBs and LSBs are J1 (m f ), J 2 (m f ), J 3 (m f ),
up to infinity. The angular frequencies of LSBs are
(c  m ), (c  2m ), (c  3m ), up to infinity, and the
angular frequencies of USBs are (   ), (  2 ), (  2 )
c m c m c m

As these are an infinite number of side bands in the FM signal, the
bandwidth of an FM system required to transmit the entire spectrum is
infinite. This is practically not feasible and therefore, only a finite number of
side bands are transmitted to have a finite and practically feasible bandwidth
of the systems.
THE FOLLOWING POINTS ARE OBSERVED FROM THIS
FREQUENCY SPECTRUM :-
There are an infinite number of lower and upper side bands in
the spectrum.
The USBs are located at +ωm, +2 ωm, +3 ωm, up to infinity
with reference to the location of the carrier frequency. This
shows that the separation between the two adjacent side bands is
ωm on the frequency axis.
The LSBs are located at -ωm, -2 ωm, -3 ωm up to infinity. This
shows that the adjacent LSBs are also separated by ωm.
The sidebands at equal distances from ƒc have equal
amplitudes, so that the sideband distribution is symmetrical
about the carrier frequency. The J coefficients occasionally have
negative values, signifying a 180°phase change for that particular
pair of sidebands.
It is seen from the table that as mƒ increases, so does the
value of a particular J coefficient.

Bearing in mind that mƒ is inversely proportional to

modulating frequency, we see that the relative amplitude of
distant sidebands increases when the modulation frequency
is lowered.

The previous statement assumes that deviation (i.e., the

modulating voltage) has remained constant.

In AM, increased depth of modulation increases the

sideband power and therefore the total transmitted power.
In FM, the total transmitted power always remains constant,
but with increased depth of modulation the required
bandwidth is increased.
To be quite specific, what increases is the bandwidth required
to transmit a relatively undistorted signal. This is true because
increased depth of modulation means increased deviation, and
therefore an increased modulation index, so that more distant
sidebands acquire significant amplitudes.
In practice, the bandwidth used is one that has been
calculated to allow for all significant amplitudes of sideband
components under the most exacting conditions.
This really means Ensuring that, with maximum deviation by
the highest modulating frequency, no significant sideband
component are lopped off.
The J coefficients eventually decrease in value as n increases,
but not in any simple manner. As seen in Figure 5-3, the value
fluctuates on either side of zero, gradually diminishing.

Since each J coefficient represents the amplitude of a particular

pair of sidebands, these also eventually decrease, but only past a
certain value of n. The modulation index determines how many
sideband components have significant amplitudes.

The amplitude of the carrier signal was assumed equal to unity

while deriving Eq 28 for instantaneous freq to get the frequency
spectrum of an FM signal. But in fig the amplitude of the carrier
signal is marked in the solid line at ωc as less than 1. This is
because the total transmitting power of the FM signal is given as :
2
 Ec 
  2
PT     c
2 E
R 2
In this equation, R is the resistance of the transmitting antenna,
in ohms. If R = 1.0 ohms, then equation becomes,
2
Ec
PT 
2
As Ec is always constant, the power of an FM signal, given by this
equation will be constant.

There are side bands in FM signal that should also contain some
power. In an FM system, the total power is shared by all the side
bands and the carrier signal .Therefore, the side bands take their
power from the carrier power.
This reduces the carrier power in the modulated signal and the
amplitude of the un-modulated carrier present in the FM signal
reduces.
As the number of side bands increase, the amplitude of the
carrier in the transmitted signal decreases to maintain the total
power of the FM signal at a constant value.
This is the reason why the carrier amplitude is not equal to unity,
as assumed earlier. If the number of side bands is reduced in the
transmitted FM signal, the carrier amplitude will correspondingly
increase.
It is possible for the carrier component of the FM wave to
disappear completely. This happens for certain values of the
modulation index, called eigenvalues. Fig-y, shows that these are
approximately 2.4,5.5,8.6,11.8, and so on.
It can be shown that the output consists of carrier and an apparently
infinite number of pairs of sidebands. Each preceded by J coefficients.
These are Bessel functions. Here they happen to be of the first kind and
of the order denoted by the subscript, with the argument mƒ. J May be
shown to be a solution of an equation of the form

 
2
d y dy
(m f ) 2
2
 m f  m 2
f  n 2
y0
dm f dm f

  mf 
2
 mf 
4
 mf 
6

n       
 mf   1  2   2   2  
J n (m f )      
 n! 1!n  1! 2!n  2! 3!n  1!  .....
 2   
 
In order to evaluate the value of a given pair of sidebands or the
value of the carrier, it is necessary to know the value of the
corresponding Bessel function. Separate calculation from this
equation for each case is not required, since info is already
available in form of a table or graphical form.
 CARSON’S RULE
Carson’s rule gives the estimation of the
bandwidth of an FM system. This rule states
that the bandwidth of an FM system is double
the sum of the maximum frequency deviation fd
and the highest modulating frequency fm. Thus,
if B is the bandwidth of the system, then
according to Carson’s rule :

B  2( f d  f m )
 CARSON’S RULE
This rule is based upon experimental results that proved
that there are a limited number of side bands around the
carrier frequency, which contain approximately 98
percent of the total power of an FM signal.

All the remaining side bands in the frequency spectrum

contain only 2 percent of the total power. Thus, it is
obvious that the bandwidth of an FM system can be
reduced to a practically feasible limit at the expanse of 2
percent of the total power.
 SOME MORE CONCEPTS
• Approx Bandwidth of FM signal
= 2[ fd + fm ]
= 2[ mf x fm +fm ]
= 2 fm [ m +1 ] ie; its Bandwidth depends upon Modulation
Index

• FM SIGNAL WHOSE mf IS LESS THAN 1 (Narrow Band FM

signal)
Then Bandwidth = 2 fm [ m +1 ] = 2fm

• FM SIGNAL WHOSE mf IS >> THAN 1 (Wide Band FM signal)

Then Bandwidth = 2 fm [ m +1 ] = 2 m x fm = 2fd
 AM vs FM
• ADVANTAGES
• All the transmitted power in FM is useful whereas in AM
most of it is transmitted in carrier which carries no useful
information.

• FM receivers can be fitted with amplitude limiters to

remove the amplitude variations caused by noise.FM is
therefore more immune to noise.

• Max frequency deviation possible in FM is 75 KHz and at

max AF of 15 KHz also the modulation index would be 5
whereas modulation index more than 1 causes severe
distortions.
 AM vs FM
• ADVANTAGES
• FM provides a guard band between commercial
FM stations thus there is less adjacent channel
interference. Each FM broadcast channel occupies
200 KHz of which 180 KHz is used and 20 KHz is
guard band.

• FM broadcasts operate in VHF & UHF ranges at

which there is less noise than MF & HF ranges used
for AM broadcasts.
• FM broadcast range is slightly more than line of sight so
several independent transmitters can be on the same
frequency with much less interference.

• In FM, receiver is captured by the stronger transmitter if

the two transmitters are working on the same frequency
and there is no interference from weaker transmitter.

• DRAWBACKS
• FM requires much wider channel.
• More complex and costly modulation, demodulation,
transmitting and receiving eqpt for FM.
• FM has much smaller ranges restricted to line of sight.
 FREQUENCY MODULATION
ADVANTAGES
• The amplitude of FM signal is constant, thus independent of Modulation depth.
In AM modulation depth governs
transmitted power
• All the power transmitted in FM is useful. In AM carrier contains max power
and no information
• FM receivers can be fitted with amplitude limiters to remove amplitude
variations caused by noise. This makes FM
reception more immune to noise than AM
• It is possible to reduce noise by increasing deviation. This is not possible in
AM. Modulation index more than 1.0
causes distortion

DISADVANTAGES
• A much wider channel is required by FM, almost 10 times that of
AM
• FM modulators and demodulators are complex
• Costly equipment