INDIVIDUAL

DIFFERENCES
AND
INTELLIGENCE

Melani N. Bejen Mr. Bautista

BS- CpE - IV Instructor
CONTENTS
Part 1: Individual Differences
 Meaning and Nature of Individual Differences
 Factors Affecting Individual Differences
 Measurement And Evaluation of
Individual Differences
 Meeting Individual Difference (Group differences in abilities)
 Statistics in Psychology
 Measures of Central Tendency and Variability

Part 2 : Intelligence
 The Meaning and Nature of Intelligence
 Test Theory
 Kinds of Test
 Intelligence Test
 Mental Retardation
 Mentally Gifted
 Part 1: Individual Differences
That people differ from each other is obvious. How and why
they differ is less clear and is the subject of the study of
Individual differences (IDs). Although to study individual
differences seems to be to study variance, how are people
different, it is also to study central tendency, how well can a
person be described in terms of an overall within-person
average. Indeed, perhaps the most important question of
individual differences is whether people are more similar to
themselves over time and across situations than they are to
others, and whether the variation within a single person across
time and situation is less than the variation between people.
A. Meaning and Nature of Individual Differences
Individual differences are deviations of individuals from the average or from
one another. While the old concept of individual differences was equated with
intelligence and achievement, mastery of subject matter, the emphasis is now
more focused on any measurable aspect of total personality.

Characteristics of Individual Differences

1. Variability and Normality - mentioned how even organisms with in species vary
greatly in their pattern of adaptive behavior and how anatomical, physiological and
psychological differences exist among people.
2. Differential rates of growth and learning - developmental schedules vary for
all individuals. These variations can be seen in cognitive abilities, in physical, emotional,
and moral, aspects of growth.
3. Interrelations of traits - growth of personality for instance, is the result of the
continuing interaction of many factors.
4. Hereditary and environmental factors - contribution can never be completely
separated because they are in continuous interplay in the production of every physical
and psychological trait.
B. Factors Affecting Individual Differences

1. Physiological - endocrine gland activity, brain tissue damage, as a result of accidents, illness
infection or chemical stimulation can cause changes in intellectual functioning, mood and
relations with others.
2. Cultural influences - in some cultures, physical stature and muscular strength are socially
attractive.
3. Interaction between biological and social factors - an individual being a complex product of
many interacting variables is really more than the simple sum of different influences.

C. Measurement And Evaluation of Individual Differences

Because people do differ, interest in ascertaining the nature and extent of these differences
have resulted in the development of techniques that make predictions necessary.
Certain Specific Concept to be Understood (Psychological Assessment)
1. Standards or Norms - are based on massive data collected concerning different kinds of behavior.
2. Sampling - is the process of choosing a selected portion which is representative of the whole.
3. Reliability - refers to the dependability of test as reflected in the consistency of its scores upon
repeated measurements of the same group.
4. Validity - is a property of a measuring device, say a test, in measuring in fact, what it is intended to
measure.
 D. Meeting Individual Differences
Group differences in abilities
Because of intellectual differences among learners, schools have become more aware
of the urgency of satisfying the needs of individual learners.
Six Types of Group
1. Grouping 4. Special Schools
2. Acceleration 5. Enrichment techniques
3. Supervised Study 6. Teaching techniques
Grouping
Students have been organized in schools on the basis of mental age and intelligence quotients.
Two Types of Grouping
a. Homogeneous grouping - In the Philippines, one of the requirements for the first grade
entrance is that they be at least six or seven years old. Ability groupings are done through the
separation of students in row of seats according to some basis as intelligence, reading or
speeding abilities.
 It tends to dichotomize the bright from the dull.
 May foster feelings of superiority or inferiority.
 Competition and challenge is reduced.
 Leadership for the bright is curtailed.
b. Special Grouping - may be accomplished by the following methods:

 Community sponsor plans

 Honor classes
 Part-time interest groups
 Saturday-class plans
 Special classes (elementary level)
 Independent study plans

2. Acceleration - This is specially applicable for the bright and fast group.

Number of ways:
 Grade skipping
 Three year work in 2 (or other variation)
 Early admission to kinder or first year
 Entrance to college w/ advance standing
 Early admission to college
 Speeding up work
3. Supervised Study - Educators can adjust their methods so that more time can be given to those who
need more attention.

Special Schools - Special classes in regular public school are also being held where the gifted
from several schools are grouped together and given a specialized method of approach to
attend to their individual needs and talents.

5. Enrichment techniques
Two Types of Enrichment
 Vertical Enrichment - where certain subject matters are taught w/ depth through the use of
devices, film strips, slides, advanced lessons and the like.
 Horizontal Enrichment - is taught but discussion is expanded to include outside but related
topics like sociology, psychometrics, human relations, mental health, psychiatry, etc.

6. Teaching techniques - the multi-sense approach (involving many senses as hearing,

seeing, touching, etc. Need more prodding and motivation in order that their interests maybe
aroused, hence, the teacher must be ingenious enough to think of ways of holding and
stimulating their interest.
Statistics in Psychology
A branch of mathematics devoted to the collection, compilation, display, and interpretation of
numerical data.

Two kinds of Statistics

 Descriptive statistics - simply give a general picture of the scores in a given group. They
include the measures of central tendency and the measures of variability.
 Inferential statistics - are used to help psychologists draw inferences, or conclusions, from the
data obtained from their research.
Correlation Coefficient - another widely used inferential statistic, which describes the strength of
the relationship between two variables. Correlations involve patterns that exist in groups;
individuals within those groups may not perform in the manner the correlation predicts that they
will, but if large numbers of students are tested, general trends may be detected.
Measures of Central Tendency and Variability

Measures of Central Tendency

A measure of central tendency is important because it allows us to quickly answer the most
basic question we usually have about our data: "Which one is bigger (or smaller)?"
Three Different Measures of Central Tendency

1. Mean - this is found by adding all the scores together and dividing by the number of
cases.
Example: Suppose 5 students obtained the following number of correct answer in a test:
2, 3, 6, 6, 8. The mean is taken by adding all the scores which is 25,and dividing by the
number of cases which is 5.
2. Median - To get the median, you have to arrange the scores in order (lowest to
highest or vice versa) and counting up to the middle score from either end. In the same
problem:
8 + 6 + 6 + 3 + 2 = 25 25/2 = 12.5
Median
3. Mode - The score most frequently represented. In the problem above, the score 6 is
represented twice. Hence, 6 is the mode.
Measures of Variability Or Deviation
Variability - involves the standard deviation, which indicates how far scores in a group
are likely to be from the average.

Two Types of Variability

1. Intra-Variability - concerns differences within the individual as for example, a
record variability of one’s performance in tests. This is sometimes referred to as Trait
variability.
2. Inter- Variability - concerns differences among individuals or between individuals
with regards to environment .
Deviation - refers to the spread or scatter of a set of measures about a point.

Illustration
 Range - is the spread from the lowest to the highest score.
 Mean - deviation is the mean of the amounts by which each score deviates or departs
from the mean of all the scores.
 Standard Deviation - we do the same thing as in the Mean deviation we first
determine the deviation of each raw score from the mean.
Part 11: Intelligence

The most primitive form of intelligence consists of

responding to a particular stimulus. Learning and
remembering are characteristics of higher levels of
intellectual functioning. Other signs of intelligence
include the ability to imitate and to learn by
observation, ability to solve successive problems of
the same type with progressively few errors, and the
ability to solve complex problems and show
rudimentary insight.
The Meaning and Nature of Intelligence
Intelligence - most psychology books will attest, has been defined differently by
different authors.

The Nature of Intelligence

Seven Primary Mental Abilities
1. Verbal comprehension - ability to understand and use verbal concepts
affectively.
2. Word fluency - the ability to think of words fluently.
3. Skill in numerical computation - ability to carry out fundamental arithmetic
operation quickly and correctly.
4. Perceptual speed and accuracy - ability to identify objects quickly and
accurately.
5. Associative memory - ability to retain and learn information.
6. Spatial visualization - ability to deal w/ objects in space and utilize spatial
relationship.
7. Reasoning - the ability to perceive and use abstract relationships in the solution of
problems.
Test Theory

Classical Test Theory (CTT) - ignores individual response patterns and estimates an
individual's total vocabulary size by measuring performance on small samples of
words. Statistics are based on decomposing the sources of variance within and between
individuals.

Item Response Theory (IRT) - statistics focus on the precision of an individual estimate
without requiring differences between individuals.

Spearman’s Two-factor Theory - all intellectual ability can be expressed as the result of
the operation of two factors.
1. General intellectual factor - w/c is common to all abilities.
2. Specific factor w/c is specific to any particular ability, but different in every case.

Thurstone’s Multifactor Theory - intelligence is not determined primarily by a simple,

general factor but a variable number of similarly broad factors.

Thordike’s Multifactor Theory (Theory of Specific Intelligence) - an American

psychologist states that intelligence is simply the summation of all the abilities
involved in mental facts, each separate and independent of the others.
Kinds of Test
1. Intelligence Tests - specialized aptitude and achievement tests may be divided:
 Individual tests and group tests
 Verbal tests and performance tests
2. Aptitude Tests - design to measure capacity to learn, to predict what person can accomplish
with training.
3. Achievement Tests - identify what a person can do now or his already accomplished skills.
4. Interest Tests - instruments designed to measure an individual’s interests in a variety of
activities.
5. Personality Tests - test designed to measure personality traits.
6. Popular test - Rorschach Inkblot Test and TAT (Thematic Apperception Test).

Intelligence Test
Intelligence involves the ability to think, solve problems, analyze situations, and understand
social values, customs, and norms. Intelligence is sometimes referred to as intelligence
quotient (IQ), cognitive functioning, intellectual ability, aptitude, thinking skills and general
ability.
IQ - is typically measured by standardized testing with norm-reference test.
Two Main Forms of Intelligence Assessments

1. Verbal Intelligence- is the ability to comprehend and solve language-based

problems.
2. Nonverbal Intelligence - is the ability to understand and solve visual and spatial
problems.

Common Types of Intelligence Tests

 Group intelligence tests - usually consist of a paper test booklet and scanned
scoring sheets.
 Individual intelligence tests - may include several types of tasks and may involve
easel test books for pointing responses, puzzle and game-like tasks, and question and
answer sessions. Some tasks are timed.
 Computerized tests - are becoming more widely available, but as with all tests,
examiners must consider the needs of the child before choosing this format.
Mental Retardation
This is a condition in which there is delay or deficiency in all
aspects of development, there is global and noticeable deficiency in
the development of motor, cognitive, social, and language functions.
This is the commonest form of developmental disability. In many
ways, mental retardation is also representative of developmental
disabilities in general, in its causation, nature, and care.
Mental retardation is not mental illness. The major characteristic of
mental retardation is delay in mental development, whereas the major
characteristic of mental illness is disturbance in the mental functions
of thinking, feeling, and behavior. Mental illness can occur at any age,
whereas mental retardation is present from childhood. However, some
people with mental retardation may also develop mental illness.
Example of Mental Retardation :

Hash an is a four year old boy; he still can't walk independently, but can
take a few steps with support. He can recognize family members, but
cannot show where his ear and nose are. He can babble (say ba-ba-ba) but
has not learnt to say any meaningful word. He can't indicate toilet needs.
His parents say that he is like a one-year-old child in his mental
abilities. Hashan has mental retardation.

Cerebral Palsy - In this condition, there is gross delay in the development of motor
functions.

Example :
Asha is a three-year-old child. She can speak well, sing a song, draw a
picture of a cat, and eat by herself. But she cannot yet walk, and moves
around the house crawling. Her parents report that she was slow in
holding her head up and sitting, compared to their other children. Her
lower limbs are stiff and cross over like scissors when she lies down.
Asha has a spastic type of cerebral palsy affecting her lower limbs.
Language Developmental Disability

Some children develop well in all other aspects except speech. This happens even
though their hearing is normal. Many of these children are able to understand
what is spoken to them, but they are slow in learning to speak.

Example :
Nadeem is a four-year old boy. He walks and runs well. He can put on
slippers, take off his underwear before passing stools, and hit a ball with a
bat. But he can speak only 4-5 words: abba, ammi, na-na, and dhu-
dhu (for milk). However, he can understand and follow most verbal
instructions. For instance, when told, he can fetch his father's bag from
the next room.
Nadeem has expressive language developmental disability.

Did you know…

Albert Einstein did not speak till he was four years old and did not
read till he was seven.
Autism - This is a rare disorder in which children fail to develop the ability to relate and interact with
people.

Example :

Pintu, a two-and-a-half-year old boy, spends most of his time either

rocking back an forth, or continuously moving his hands in front of his
eyes. He often keeps repeating a meaningless phrase 'tittu' in a peculiar
voice. He can see well, but does not bother to look and show interest in
who is around him. When called by his mother,
he briefly glances at her and goes back to his rocking. In spite of these
problems, he can climb up a stool and take out his favorite cookies from
a tin kept in the kitchen. Pintu has autism.
Dyslexia - In this condition, the level of intelligence is normal or above average; yet, such children have
difficulty in doing well in studies.

Example :
Raju, a ten-year-old boy, failed twice in class III. His mother and his teachers tried very hard to
teach him the spelling of such simple words as 'girl', 'forest' but he still makes mistakes. His
handwriting is very poor and hardly legible. A sample of his writing is as follows:

(Hen) (Dog) (Scored) (who) (have) (night)

While reading, he tends to guess at what is written and make many mistakes. But he is
very good in making friends, playing football and running errands. Raju has dyslexia.

Did you know…

The great inventor Thomas Alva Edison, and the famous artist Leonardo da Vinci, had
dyslexia?
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder - All children are active, but a few are
overactive and considered hyperactive. They may sleep only a few hours at a time.
When awake, they are impulsive, constantly in motion, darting from one activity to
another, often failing to sustain attention in simple tasks or games Conduct disorders.
Common manifestations of ADHD
1. A child can be said to have ADHD when several symptoms mentioned below are
prominently seen for many months.
2. Being fidgety, restless and hyperactive most of the time;
3. Having poor concentration in activities, leaving tasks unfinished, and frequently
shifting from one activity to another;
4. Impulsive behavior such as often interrupting others, doing dangerous things like rushing
into traffic, peeping into wells, jumping from heights, and pulling the tail of dogs;
5. Being distracted from activities by minor events and happenings, and
6. Easy excitability, over-talkativeness, and aggressive behavior.

Conduct disorder - is defined as a “repetitive and persistent pattern of behavior in which the
basic rights of others or major age-appropriate societal norms or rules are violated.” The
group of behavior characteristic of conduct disorder include aggressive behavior that may
cause physical harm or injury to people or animals, theft, violation of rules and destruction of
property.
Degrees of mental retardation
Not all people with mental retardation have the same level of intelligence. The scientific method
of measuring intelligence is through standardized psychological tests called IQ tests. IQ or
intelligence quotient, is the percentage of intelligence a person has, in comparison to a normal person from a
similar background. An IQ of 100 is considered normal intelligence. The lesser the IQ, the more severe is the
level of mental retardation.

Classification of Mental Retardation

IQ Category
85-100 Normal
70-85 Normal but not retarded
50- 70 Mild mental retardation
35-50 Moderate
20-35 Severe
Below 20 Profound
Mentally Gifted
The attempts to define giftedness refer in one way or another to so-called "inborn"
attributes, which, for lack of a better term, are called intelligence. Significant efforts
have been made to measure intelligence, but, because the concept is elusive, test
constructors simply aim at testing what they feel are typical manifestations of
intelligence in behaviors. Perhaps a little rhyme used for years by kindergarten teachers
will help to describe this elusiveness:
"Nobody sees the wind; neither you, nor I. But when the trees bow down their heads,
the wind is passing by."
Just as we cannot see the wind, we cannot find, operate on, or transplant
intelligence. Yet we see the working or manifestations of intelligence in the behaviors
of people.

The nature of intelligence was once explained in this way:

If intelligence were something you could see, touch, and weigh, it would be
something like a can of paint. The genius would have a gallon, the person who has
severe retardation, only half a pint. The rest of us would have varying amounts between
these extremes, with the majority possessing about two quarts. This is clear enough, but
it is only half the story.
Potential Ability of Gifted
 General intellectual ability
 Specific academic aptitude
 Creative or productive thinking
 Leadership ability
 Visual or performing arts
 Psychomotor ability.
General intellectual ability or talent - Laypersons and educators alike usually define this in
terms of a high intelligence test score usually two standard deviations above the mean--on
individual or group measures.
Specific academic aptitude or talent - Students with specific academic aptitudes are
identified by their outstanding performance on an achievement or aptitude test in one area
such as mathematics or language arts.
Creative and productive thinking - is the ability to produce new ideas by bringing together
elements usually thought of as independent or dissimilar and the aptitude for developing new
meanings that have social value.
Leadership ability - can be defined as the ability to direct individuals or groups to a common
decision or action. Students who demonstrate giftedness in leadership ability use group skills
and negotiate in difficult situations.
Visual and performing arts - gifted students with talent in the arts demonstrate special
talents in visual art, music, dance, drama, or other related studies.
Psychomotor ability - involves kinesthetic motor abilities such as practical, spatial, mechanical, and
physical skills.. It is seldom used as a criterion in gifted programs.

Different Terms of Gifted

 Genius - used to be widely employed but now it is reserved for reference only to the
phenomenally gifted person.
 Talented - tends to be used when referring to a particular strength or ability of a
person.
 Prodigy and Precocious - are most commonly used when a child evidences a
decidedly advanced degree of skill in a particular endeavor at a very early age, as well
as a very disciplined type of motivation.
 Superior - is a comparative term. When a child is classified as "superior," we
would like to know to whom, or what group, he or she is superior, and to
what degree.
 High IQ - may be anything, depending on what it is higher than.
 Rapid learner - is a helpful term in understanding giftedness, because it is a distinct
characteristic manifested by the identified gifted child.
 Exceptional - is appropriate when referring to the gifted child as being
different in the characteristics listed earlier.
 Elite - the choice, or best, or superior part of a body or class of persons. However, time
and an overemphasis on egalitarianism have imparted a negative connotation to the
word, implying snobbishness, selectivity, and unfair special attention.
THANK YOU !!!
(^_^)

THE END