MAIN OPERATING CHARACTERISTICS OF AN

IDEAL AMPLIFIER ARE

• linearity
• signal gain
• efficiency
• power output
AMPLIFIER CLASSES
The term used to differentiate between the different amplifier types.
represent the amount of the output signal which varies within the amplifier circuit
over one cycle of operation when excited by a sinusoidal input signal.
The classification of amplifiers range from entirely linear operation (for use in high-
fidelity signal amplification) with very low efficiency, to entirely non-linear (where a
faithful signal reproduction is not so important) operation but with a much higher
efficiency, while others are a compromise between the two.
AMPLIFIER CLASSES
Two Different Groups:
• Controlled conduction angle amplifiers
• Switching amplifier
CONTROLLED CONDUCTION ANGLE AMPLIFIERS

They are:
• Class A
• Class B
• Class AB
• Class C
CLASS A AMPLIFIER
The most common type of amplifier class due mainly to their simple
design.
Class A, literally means “the best class” of amplifier due mainly to
their low signal distortion levels and are probably the best
sounding of all the amplifier classes
CLASS A AMPLIFIER BRIEF DETAILS
• Low signal distortion levels
• Simple design
• The device is always conducting due to amplifying element bias
• No turn on time or charge storage problems
• Quite stable
• Highest linearity
• Low efficiency due to being on all the time, around the vicinity of 25-50%
• High heat output during operation
CLASS A AMPLIFIER – SIMPLE DESIGN
Use the same single transistor (Bipolar, FET, IGBT, etc) connected in
a common emitter configuration for both halves of the waveform
with the transistor always having current flowing through it, even
if it has no base signal.
Output stage whether using a Bipolar, MOSFET or IGBT device, is
never driven fully into its cut-off or saturation regions but instead
has a base biasing Q-point in the middle of its load line.
CLASS A AMPLIFIER – LOW DISTORTION
A class A amplifier operates in the linear portion of its characteristic
curves, the single output device conducts through a full 360
degrees of the output waveform. Resulting to a full 360 degree
wave form.
Operates in the linear region, the transistors base (or gate) DC
biasing voltage should by chosen properly to ensure correct
operation and low distortion.
CLASS A AMPLIFIER – HIGHEST LINEARITY &
LOW EFFICIENCY

Amplifiers create tremendous amounts of heat adding to their very low efficiency at
around 30%, making them impractical for high-power amplifications.
Avoiding any amplifier hum and noise.
CLASS A AMPLIFIER – DESIGN AND LINEARITY
CLASS B AMPLIFIER
Invented as a solution to the efficiency and heating problems
associated with the previous class A amplifier.
Basic class B amplifier uses two complimentary transistors either
bipolar of FET for each half of the waveform with its output stage
configured in a “push-pull” type arrangement.
CLASS B AMPLIFIER – BRIEF DETAILS
• Uses 2 complementary transistors, one each for the positive and negative cycle
• Much higher efficiency, around 75-78.5%
• Lesser heat output
• Stable and reliable
• Requires at least 0.7 V to start conducting, which means anything under it
doesn’t register, so cannot be used for precise applications
• Combines 2 half cycles to form one full cycle
CLASS B AMPLIFIER - EFFICIENCY
There is no DC base bias current as its quiescent current is zero, so
that the dc power is small and therefore its efficiency is much
higher than that of the class A amplifier.
Pdesign of amplifier is obviously more efficient than Class A, at
about 50%.
CLASS B AMPLIFIER - COMPLEMENTARY
TRANSISTORS

When the input signal goes positive, the positive biased transistor
conducts while the negative transistor is switched “OFF”.
Likewise, when the input signal goes negative, the positive
transistor switches “OFF” while the negative biased transistor
turns “ON” and conducts the negative portion of the signal.
CLASS B AMPLIFIER – CONDUCTING VOLTAGE
Class B amplifier design is that it can create distortion at the zero-
crossing point of the waveform due to the transistors dead band
of input base voltages from -0.7V to +0.7.
We remember from the Transistor , base-emitter voltage of about
0.7 volts to get a bipolar transistor to start conducting. The
output transistor is not “biased” to an “ON” state of operation
until this voltage is exceeded.
CLASS B AMPLIFIER – DESIGN & LINEARITY
CLASS AB AMPLIFIER
To overcome this zero-crossing distortion (also known as Crossover
Distortion) class AB amplifiers were developed.
Combination of the “Class A” and the “Class B” type amplifiers we
have looked.
One of the most common used types of audio power amplifier
design.
CLASS AB AMPLIFIER – BRIEF DETAILS
• Uses 2 transistors that work together
• Each transistor is active for slightly less than a full cycle but more than a half
cycle
• Combines Class A and Class B characteristics
• No crossover distortion
• Fairly efficient, at around 50-60%
• Most common audio amplifier design
CLASS AB AMPLIFIER – 2 AMPLIFIERS
Variation of a class B amplifier
• both devices are allowed to conduct at the same time around the
waveforms crossover point eliminating the crossover distortion problems
of the previous class B amplifier.
• the conducting device, “ON” for more than one half cycle, but much less
than one full cycle of the input signal.
• design each of the push-pull transistors is conducting for slightly more
than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much less than the full
cycle of conduction of class A.
CLASS AB AMPLIFIER – EFFICIENCY
The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided by series diodes
or resistors, is that the crossover distortion created by the class B
amplifier characteristics is overcome, without the inefficiencies
of the class A amplifier design.
Conversion efficiencies reaching about 50% to 60%.
CLASS AB AMPLIFIER – DESIGN & LINEARITY
CLASS C AMPLIFIER
Has the greatest efficiency but the poorest linearity of the classes of
amplifiers.
CLASS C AMPLIFIER – BRIEF DETAILS
• Least linear among power amplifiers
• Very high efficiency of around 80-90%
• High output distortion
• Two operating modes, tuned and untuned
• Low power dissipation
• are not suitable for use as audio amplifiers.
CLASS C AMPLIFIER – LINEARITY, EFFICIENCY &
DISTORTION

Heavily biased so that the output current is zero for more than one
half of an input sinusoidal signal cycle with the transistor idling at
its cut-off point
Conduction angle for the transistor is significantly less than 180
degrees, and is generally around the 90 degrees area.
Transistor biasing gives a much improved efficiency of around 80%
to the amplifier, it introduces a very heavy distortion of the output
signal.
CLASS C AMPLIFIER – DESIGN AND LINEARITY
CONTROLLED CONDUCTION ANGLE AMPLIFIERS
SUMMARY
CLASS A COMMON EXAMPLES

DARLINGTON PAIR
CLASS A COMMON EXAMPLES

TRANSFORMER COUPLED
CLASS B COMMON EXAMPLE

Transformer less Class

B Push-Pull Amplifier
CLASS B COMMON EXAMPLES

Push-pull Amplifier with Pre-biasing

SWITCHING AMPLIFIER

They are:
• Class D
• Class F
• Class G
• Class S
• Class T
• Class I
CLASS D AMPLIFIER
Audio amplifier is basically a non-linear switching amplifier or PWM
amplifier. Class-D amplifiers theoretically can reach 100%
efficiency, as there is no period during a cycle were the voltage
and current waveforms overlap as current is drawn only through
the transistor that is on.
CLASS F AMPLIFIER
Boost both efficiency and output by using harmonic resonators in
the output network to shape the output waveform into a square
wave. Class-F amplifiers are capable of high efficiencies of more
than 90% if infinite harmonic tuning is used.
CLASS G AMPLIFIER
Class G offers enhancements to the basic class AB amplifier design.
Class G uses multiple power supply rails of various voltages and
automatically switches between these supply rails as the input
signal changes. This constant switching reduces the average
power consumption, and therefore power loss caused by wasted
heat.
CLASS I AMPLIFIER
The class I amplifier has two sets of complementary output
switching devices arranged in a parallel push-pull configuration
with both sets of switching devices sampling the same input
waveform.
CLASS S AMPLIFIER
Is a non-linear switching mode amplifier similar in operation to the
class D amplifier. The class S amplifier converts analogue input
signals into digital square wave pulses by a delta-sigma
modulator, and amplifies them to increases the output power
before finally being demodulated by a band pass filter. As the
digital signal of this switching amplifier is always either fully “ON”
or “OFF” (theoretically zero power dissipation), efficiencies
reaching 100% are possible.
CLASS T AMPLIFIER
Another type of digital switching amplifier design. Class T amplifiers
are starting to become more popular these days as an audio
amplifier design due to the existence of digital signal processing
(DSP) chips and multi-channel surround sound amplifiers as it
converts analogue signals into digital pulse width modulated
(PWM) signals for amplification increasing the amplifiers
efficiency. Class T amplifier designs combine both the low
distortion signal levels of class AB amplifier and the power
efficiency of a class D amplifier.
SWITCHING AMPLIFIERS BY CONDUCTION
ANGLE
Amplifier Class Description Conduction Angle

Class-A Full cycle 360o of Conduction θ = 2π

Class-B Half cycle 180o of Conduction θ=π

Class-AB Slightly more than 180o of conduction π < θ < 2π

Class-C Slightly less than 180o of conduction θ<π

Class-D to T ON-OFF non-linear switching θ=0

PURPOSE OF THAT CLASSING
Power amplifier classes are, in electronics, letter symbols applied to
different power amplifier types and give a broad indication of
their characteristics and performance
The classes are related to the time period that the active amplifier
device is passing current, expressed as a fraction of the period of
a signal waveform applied to the input.
THE POWER SOUND MEASUREMENTS
Suffixes are commonly attached to the basic dB unit in order to
indicate the reference value by which the ratio is calculated.
The SI does not permit attaching qualifiers to units, whether as
suffix or prefix, other than standard SI prefixes. Therefore, even
though the decibel is accepted for use alongside SI units, the
practice of attaching a suffix to the basic dB unit
The proper way, according to the IEC 60027-3, is either as Lx (re
xref) or as Lx/xref, where x is the quantity symbol and xref is the
value of the reference quantity, e.g., LE (re 1 μV/m) = LE/(1
μV/m) for the electric field strength E relative to 1 μV/m
reference value.
IEC 60027-3
Standard, Letter symbols
to be used in electrical
technology -
Logarithmic and
related quantities, and
their units.
DECIBEL – POWER SOUND UNIT
The decibel (symbol: dB) is a logarithmic unit used to express the
ratio of one value of a physical property to another, and may be
used to express a change in value (e.g., +1 dB or -1 dB) or an
absolute value. In the latter case, it expresses the ratio of a value
to a reference value; when used in this way, the decibel symbol
should be appended with a suffix that indicates the reference
value or some other property.
DECIBEL IN TERMS OF VOLTAGE
Since the decibel is
defined with respect to
power, not amplitude,
conversions of voltage
ratios to decibels must
square the amplitude,
or use the factor of 20
instead of 10. A schematic showing the relationship
between dBu (the voltage source) and dBm (the
power dissipated as heat by the 600 Ω resistor)
DECIBEL IN VOLTAGE
• dBv - dB(VRMS) – voltage relative to 1 volt, regardless of impedance
• dBu - Originally dBv, it was changed to dBu to avoid confusion with dBV.
The "v" comes from "volt", while "u" comes from the volume unit used in
the VU meter. dBu can be used as a measure of voltage, regardless of
impedance, but is derived from a 600 Ω load dissipating 0 dBm (1 mW).
• dBmV - dB(mVRMS) – voltage relative to 1 millivolt across 75 Ω. Widely
used in cable television networks, where the nominal strength of a single
TV signal at the receiver terminals is about 0 dBmV. Cable TV uses 75 Ω
coaxial cable, so 0 dBmV corresponds to −78.75 dBW (−48.75 dBm) or
approx. 13 nW.
• dBμV or dBuV - voltage relative to 1 microvolt. Widely used in television
and aerial amplifier specifications. 60 dBμV = 0 dBmV
DECIBEL IN TERMS OF ACOUSTICS
Probably the most common usage of "decibels" in reference to
sound level is dB SPL, sound pressure level referenced to the
nominal threshold of human hearing. The measures of pressure
(a field quantity) use the factor of 20, and the measures of power
(e.g. dB SIL and dB SWL) use the factor of 10.
DECIBEL IN TERMS OF ACOUSTICS (COMMON)
• dBm - dB(mW), power relative to 1 milliwatt. In audio and telephony, dBm is
typically referenced relative to a 600 ohm impedance, which corresponds to a
voltage level of 0.775 volts or 775 millivolts.
• dBTP - dB(true peak) - peak amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum
which a device can handle before clipping occurs. In digital systems, 0 dBTP
would equal the highest level (number) the processor is capable of representing.
Measured values are always negative or zero, since they are less than or equal to
full-scale
• dBFS - dB(full scale) – the amplitude of a signal compared with the maximum
which a device can handle before clipping occurs.. A signal measured with
reference to a full-scale sine-wave will appear 3 dB weaker when referenced to a
full-scale square wave, 0 dBFS(fullscale sine wave) = −3 dBFS(fullscale square
wave).
DECIBELS IN TERMS OF RADAR MEASURE
• dBZ - dB(Z), decibel relative to Z = 1 mm6·m−3:[51] energy of reflectivity
(weather radar), related to the amount of transmitted power returned to the radar
receiver. Values above 15–20 dBZ usually indicate falling precipitation.[52]
• dBsm - dB(m2), decibel relative to one square meter: measure of the radar cross
section (RCS) of a target. The power reflected by the target is proportional to its
RCS. "Stealth" aircraft and insects have negative RCS measured in dBsm, large
flat plates or non-stealthy aircraft have positive values.[53]
 DECIBEL IN TERMS OF RADIO POWER, ENERGY,
AND FIELD STRENGTH
• dBc - relative to carrier in telecommunications, this indicates the relative levels of
noise or sideband power, compared with the carrier power. Compare dBC, used in
acoustics.
• dBJ - energy relative to 1 joule. 1 joule = 1 watt second = 1 watt per hertz, so
power spectral density can be expressed in dBJ.
• dBm - dB(mW) – power relative to 1 milliwatt. In the radio field, dBm is usually
referenced to a 50 ohm load, with the resultant voltage being 0.224 volts.
 DECIBELS IN TERMS OF ANTENNA
MEASUREMENTS
• dBi - dB(isotropic) – the forward gain of an antenna compared with the
hypothetical isotropic antenna, which uniformly distributes energy in all directions.
Linear polarization of the EM field is assumed unless noted otherwise.
• dBd - dB(dipole) , the forward gain of an antenna compared with a half-wave
dipole antenna. 0 dBd = 2.15 dBi
• dBiC - dB(isotropic circular) – the forward gain of an antenna compared to a
circularly polarized isotropic antenna. There is no fixed conversion rule between
dBiC and dBi, as it depends on the receiving antenna and the field polarization.
DECIBEL SUFFIXES WITHIN PARENTHESES
dB(A), dB(B), and dB(C)
These symbols are often used to denote the use of different weighting
filters, used to approximate the human ear's response to sound,
although the measurement is still in dB (SPL). Usually refer to noise and
its effects on humans and other animals, and they are widely used in
industry while discussing noise control issues, regulations and
environmental standards. Other variations that may be seen are dBA or
dBA.
OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
An electronic oscillator is an electronic circuit that produces a
periodic, oscillating electronic signal, often a sine wave or a
square wave. Oscillators convert direct current (DC) from a power
supply to an alternating current (AC) signal.
OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT
Oscillators are often characterized by the frequency of their output signal:
• A low-frequency oscillator (LFO) is an electronic oscillator that generates a
frequency below approximately 20 Hz. This term is typically used in the field of
audio synthesizers, to distinguish it from an audio frequency oscillator.
• An audio oscillator produces frequencies in the audio range, about 16 Hz to 20
kHz.
• An RF oscillator produces signals in the radio frequency (RF) range of about 100
kHz to 100 GHz.
Oscillators designed to produce a high-power AC output from a DC supply are usually
called inverters.
OSCILLATOR CIRCUIT - TYPE
Hartley Oscillator
The Hartley oscillator is an electronic oscillator. The frequency of this oscillation is
determined by the tuned circuit. The tuned circuit consists of the capacitor and
inductor, hence it is an LC oscillator
In 1915 by American engineer Ralph Hartley has invented this oscillator
The Hartley oscillator is parallel to the Colpitts apart from that it uses a pair of tapping
coils as an alternate of two tapped capacitors.
OSCILLATOR TYPE - HARTLEY
From the below circuit the output
voltage is developed across the
inductor L1 and the feedback
voltages are across the inductor
L2. The feedback network is given
in the mathematical expression
which is given below
Feedback network = XL2 / XL1 = L 2 /
L1
OSCILLATOR TYPE - HARTLEY
Applications
• This oscillation will produce a
desired range of frequencies
• The Hartley oscillators are
used in the radio frequency in
a range of the 30Mhz
• In radio receiver, this oscillator
is used and it has a wide
range of frequency
OSCILLATOR TYPE - COLPITS
The Colpitts Oscillator was by American engineering by Edwin H. Colpitts in the year of
1918. This oscillator is a combination of both inductors and capacitor. The
features of the Colpitts Oscillator are the feedback for the active devices and they
are taken from the voltage divider and made up of two capacitors which are in
series across the inductor.
This oscillator is an electrically dual of the Hartley oscillator hence the feedback
signal is taken from the inductive voltage divider it has two coils in the series.
OSCILLATOR TYPE - COLPITS
The following circuit diagram shows the
common base Colpitts circuit. The
inductor L and the both the capacitors
C1 & C2 are in series with the parallel
resonant tank circuit and it gives the
frequency of the oscillator. The voltage
across the C2 terminal is applied to the
base-emitter junction of the transistor
to create the feedback oscillations.
OSCILLATOR TYPE - COLPITS
Applications
• It is used to generate the sinusoidal
output signals with a very high
frequency
• Very wide range of frequencies is
involved
• It is used in the radio and mobile
communications
• In commercial purpose, many
applications are used
OSCILLATOR TYPE – MULTI - WAVE
The multi-wave oscillator was invented by the French engineer by Georges Lakhovsky
in the year of 1920 to 1940. He showed that the nucleus of the cell with the
filaments stands, it is very similar to the electronic oscillator and it has the
capability of receiving & sending the vibratory information. The multi-wave
oscillator unit presents the printed circuit board Golden ratio antenna.
OSCILLATOR TYPE – MULTI - WAVE
Applications
• The healing action of this oscillation is very bad because of the holistically work
• The healing process is done by all parts of the body
• The MWO is used in many countries worldwide by individual
• This oscillator is applied for the treatment of the cancer
Audio Oscillators also known as RC Oscillators
OSCILLATOR TYPES – R-C OSCILLATORS
R- C oscillators are commonly used for generating audio-frequencies as they provide
good frequency stability and waveform. Also, with the advent of IC technology, R-C
network is the only feasible solution, as it is very difficult to make a too high value
inductance in an integrated circuit
OSCILLATOR TYPES – R-C OSCILLATORS
For producing oscillations in an oscillator
circuit we need positive feedback
which means that the voltage signal
feedback should be in phase with the
input signal.
Fig. (a). The 180° phase shift in the
feedback signal can be obtained by a
suitable network consisting of three R-
C sections
OSCILLATOR TYPES – R-C OSCILLATORS
RC Phase-Shift Network

The circuit on the left shows a single

resistor-capacitor network whose output
voltage “leads” the input voltage by
some angle less than 90o. An ideal
single-pole RC circuit would produce a
phase shift of exactly 90o, and because
180o of phase shift is required for
oscillation, at least two single-poles
must be used in an RC oscillator design.
OSCILLATOR TYPES – R-C OSCILLATORS
RC Phase Angle

However in reality it is difficult to obtain

exactly 90o of phase shift so more stages
are used. The amount of actual phase shift
in the circuit depends upon the values of
the resistor and the capacitor, and the
chosen frequency of oscillations with the
phase angle ( Φ )
OSCILLATOR TYPES – R-C OSCILLATORS
RC Phase Angle
Where: XC is the Capacitive Reactance of
the capacitor, R is the Resistance of the
resistor, and ƒ is the Frequency.
The values of R and C have been chosen so
that at the required frequency the output
voltage leads the input voltage by an angle
of about 60 degree. Then the phase angle
between each successive RC section
increases by another 60 degree giving a
phase difference between the input and
output of 180 degree (3 x 60 degree) as
shown by the following vector diagram
OSCILLATOR TYPES – R-C OSCILLATORS
Vector Diagram
Then by connecting together three such
RC networks in series we can produce
a total phase shift in the circuit of 180
degree at the chosen frequency and
this forms the bases of a “phase shift
oscillator” otherwise known as a RC
Oscillator circuit.
OSCILLATOR TYPES – R-C OSCILLATORS
The three RC stages are cascaded
together to get the required slope for
a stable oscillation frequency. The
feedback loop phase shift is -180o
when the phase shift of each stage is
-60o. This occurs when ω = 2πƒ =
1.732/RC as (tan 60o = 1.732).
OSCILLATOR TYPE – WIEN BRIDGE
The output of the operational amplifier is fed back to both the inputs of the amplifier.
One part of the feedback signal is connected to the inverting input terminal
(negative or degenerative feedback) via the resistor divider network of R1 and R2
which allows the amplifiers voltage gain to be adjusted within narrow limits.
OSCILLATOR TYPE – WIEN BRIDGE
The other part, which forms the series and
parallel combinations of R and C forms
the feedback network and are fed back to
the non-inverting input terminal (positive
or regenerative feedback) via the RC Wien
Bridge network and it is this positive
feedback combination that gives rise to
the oscillation.
The RC network is connected in the positive
feedback path of the amplifier and has
zero phase shift a just one frequency.
Then at the selected resonant frequency,
( ƒr ) the voltages applied to the inverting
and non-inverting inputs will be equal and
“in-phase” so the positive feedback will
cancel out the negative feedback signal
causing the circuit to oscillate.
OSCILLATOR TYPE – WIEN BRIDGE
The voltage gain of the amplifier circuit MUST be
equal too or greater than three “Gain = 3” for
oscillations to start because as we have seen
above, the input is 1/3 of the output. This
value, ( Av ≥ 3 ) is set by the feedback resistor
network, R1 and R2 and for a non-inverting
amplifier this is given as the ratio 1+(R1/R2).
Also, due to the open-loop gain limitations of
operational amplifiers, frequencies above
1MHz are unachievable without the use of
special high frequency op-amps.
OSCILLATOR TYPE – WIEN BRIDGE
Then for oscillations to occur in a Wien Bridge Oscillator circuit the following conditions
must apply.
• With no input signal a Wien Bridge Oscillator produces continuous output oscillations.
• The Wien Bridge Oscillator can produce a large range of frequencies.
• The Voltage gain of the amplifier must be greater than 3.
• The RC network can be used with a non-inverting amplifier.
• The input resistance of the amplifier must be high compared to R so that the RC
network is not overloaded and alter the required conditions.
• The output resistance of the amplifier must be low so that the effect of external loading
is minimised.
• Some method of stabilizing the amplitude of the oscillations must be provided. If the
voltage gain of the amplifier is too small the desired oscillation will decay and stop. If it
is too large the output will saturate to the value of the supply rails and distort.
• With amplitude stabilisation in the form of feedback diodes, oscillations from the Wien
Bridge oscillator can continue indefinitely.
MULTIVIBRATORS
Sequential Logic circuits can be used to build more complex circuits such as
Multivibrators, Counters, Shift Registers, Latches and Memories.
But for these types of circuits to operate in a “sequential” way, they require the
addition of a clock pulse or timing signal to cause them to change their state.
Clock pulses are generally continuous square or rectangular shaped waveform
that is produced by a single pulse generator circuit such as a Multivibrator.
A multivibrator circuit oscillates between a “HIGH” state and a “LOW” state producing
a continuous output. Astable multivibrators generally have an even 50% duty
cycle, that is that 50% of the cycle time the output is “HIGH” and the remaining
50% of the cycle time the output is “OFF”. In other words, the duty cycle for an
astable timing pulse is 1:1.
MULTIVIBRATORS
Sequential logic circuits that use the clock
signal for synchronization are
dependent upon the frequency and
and clock pulse width to activate there
switching action. Sequential circuits
may also change their state on either
the rising or falling edge, or both of
the actual clock signal as we have
seen previously with the basic flip-flop
circuits.
MULTIVIBRATORS
Clock Signal Waveform :
• Active HIGH – if the state change occurs from a
“LOW” to a “HIGH” at the clock’s pulse rising edge or
during the clock width.
• Active LOW – if the state change occurs from a
“HIGH” to a “LOW” at the clock’s pulses falling edge.
• Duty Cycle – this is the ratio of the clock width to the
clock period.
• Clock Width – this is the time during which the value
of the clock signal is equal to a logic “1”, or HIGH.
• Clock Period – this is the time between successive
transitions in the same direction, ie, between two
rising or two falling edges.
• Clock Frequency – the clock frequency is the
reciprocal of the clock period, frequency = 1/clock
period
MULTIVIBRATORS
Clock pulse generation circuits can be a combination of analogue and digital circuits
that produce a continuous series of pulses (these are called astable
multivibrators) or a pulse of a specific duration (these are called monostable
multivibrators). Combining two or more of multivibrators provides generation of a
desired pattern of pulses (including pulse width, time between pulses and
frequency of pulses).
One way of producing a very simple clock signal is by the interconnection of logic
gates. As NAND gates contains amplification, they can also be used to provide a
clock signal or timing pulse with the aid of a single Capacitor and a single Resistor
to provide the feedback and timing function.
These timing circuits are often used because of there simplicity and are also useful if
a logic circuit is designed that has unused gates which can be utilised to create
the monostable or astable oscillator. This simple type of RC Oscillator network is
sometimes called a “Relaxation Oscillator”.
MULTIVIBRATORS
There are basically three types of clock pulse generation circuits:
• Astable – A free-running multivibrator that has NO stable states but switches
continuously between two states this action produces a train of square wave
pulses at a fixed frequency.
• Monostable – A one-shot multivibrator that has only ONE stable state and is
triggered externally with it returning back to its first stable state.
• Bistable – A flip-flop that has TWO stable states that produces a single pulse
either positive or negative in value.
MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES
Monostable Multivibrators or “one-shot” pulse generators are generally used to
convert short sharp pulses into wider ones for timing applications. Monostable
multivibrators generate a single output pulse, either “HIGH” or “LOW”, when a
suitable external trigger signal or pulse T is applied.
This trigger pulse signal initiates a timing cycle which causes the output of the
monostable to change state at the start of the timing cycle, ( t1 ) and remain in
this second state until the end of the timing period, ( t2 ) which is determined by
the time constant of the timing capacitor, CT and the resistor, RT.
MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES - MONOSTABLE
The monostable multivibrator now stays
in this second timing state until the
end of the RC time constant and
automatically resets or returns itself
back to its original (stable) state.
Then, a monostable circuit has only
one stable state. A more common
name for this type of circuit is simply
a “Flip-Flop” as it can be made from
two cross-coupled NAND gates (or
NOR gates) as we have seen
previously.
MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES - MONOSTABLE
The output from the second NAND gate, ( U2 ) is fed back to one input of U1 to
provide the necessary positive feedback. Since the junction V1 and the output of
U1 are both at logic “0” no current flows in the capacitor CT. This results in the
circuit being Stable and it will remain in this state until the trigger input T
changes.
If a negative pulse is now applied either externally or by the action of the push-button
to the trigger input of the NAND gate U1, the output of U1 will go HIGH to logic “1”
(NAND gate principles).
Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously (capacitor
charging principals) this will cause the junction at V1 and also the input to U2 to
also go HIGH, which in turn will make the output of the NAND gate U2 change
LOW to logic “0” The circuit will now remain in this second state even if the trigger
input pulse T is removed. This is known as the Meta-stable state.
MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES - MONOSTABLE
Suppose that initially the trigger input T is
held HIGH at logic level “1” by the
resistor R1 so that the output from the
first NAND gate U1 is LOW at logic
level “0”, (NAND gate principals). The
timing resistor, RT is connected to a
voltage level equal to logic level “0”,
which will cause the capacitor, CT to
be discharged. The output of U1 is
LOW, timing capacitor CT is completely
discharged therefore junction V1 is
also equal to “0” resulting in the
output from the second NAND gate
U2, which is connected as an inverting
NOT gate will therefore be HIGH.
MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES - MONOSTABLE
the monostable multivibrator circuit produces a
LOW going output pulse. The length of the
output time period is determined by the
capacitor/resistor combination (RC
Network) and is given as the Time
ConstantT = 0.69RC of the circuit in
seconds. Since the input impedance of the
NAND gates is very high, large timing
periods can be achieved.
As well as the NAND gate monostable type
circuit above, it is also possible to build
simple monostable timing circuits that start
their timing sequence from the rising-edge
of the trigger pulse using NOT gates, NAND
gates and NOR gates connected as
inverters.
 MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES - MONOSTABLE
As with the NAND gate circuit above, initially the trigger input T is HIGH at a logic level “1” so that
the output from the first NOT gate U1 is LOW at logic level “0”. The timing resistor, RT and
the capacitor, CT are connected together in parallel and also to the input of the second NOT
gate U2. As the input to U2 is LOW at logic “0” its output at Q is HIGH at logic “1”.
When a logic level “0” pulse is applied to the trigger input T of the first NOT gate it changes state
and produces a logic level “1” output. The diode D1 passes this logic “1” voltage level to the
RC timing network. The voltage across the capacitor, CT increases rapidly to this new voltage
level, which is also connected to the input of the second NOT gate. This in turn outputs a
logic “0” at Q and the circuit stays in this Meta-stable state as long as the trigger input T
applied to the circuit remains LOW.
When the trigger signal returns HIGH, the output from the first NOT gate goes LOW to logic “0”
(NOT gate principals) and the fully charged capacitor, CT starts to discharge itself through
the parallel resistor, RT connected across it. When the voltage across the capacitor drops
below the lower threshold value of the input to the second NOT gate, its output switches
back again producing a logic level “1” at Q. The diode D1 prevents the timing capacitor from
discharging itself back through the first NOT gates output.
MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES - MONOSTABLE
Then, the Time Constant for a NOT gate
Monostable Multivibrator is given as T
= 0.8RC + Trigger in seconds.
One main disadvantage of Monostable
Multivibrators is that the time
between the application of the next
trigger pulse T has to be greater than
the RC time constant of the circuit.
 MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES -ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
Astable Multivibrators are the most commonly used type of multivibrator circuit. An
astable multivibrator is a free running oscillator that have no permanent “meta”
or “steady” state but are continually changing there output from one state (LOW)
to the other state (HIGH) and then back again. This continual switching action
from “HIGH” to “LOW” and “LOW” to “HIGH” produces a continuous and stable
square wave output that switches abruptly between the two logic levels making it
ideal for timing and clock pulse applications.
 MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES -ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
As with the previous monostable
multivibrator circuit above, the timing
cycle is determined by the RC time
constant of the resistor-capacitor, RC
Network. Then the output frequency
can be varied by changing the
value(s) of the resistors and
capacitor in the circuit.
 MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES -ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
As the capacitor, C charges up, the junction between the resistor R2 and the
capacitor, C, which is also connected to the input of the NAND gate U1 via the
stabilizing resistor, R2decreases until the lower threshold value of U1 is reached
at which point U1 changes state and the output of U1 now becomes HIGH. This
causes NAND gate U2 to also change state as its input has now changed from
logic “0” to logic “1” resulting in the output of NANDgate U2 becoming LOW, logic
level “0”.
Capacitor C is now reverse biased and discharges itself through the input of NAND
gate U1. Capacitor, C charges up again in the opposite direction determined by
the time constant of both R2 and C as before until it reaches the upper threshold
value of NANDgate U1. This causes U1 to change state and the cycle repeats
itself over again.
 MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES -ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
Suppose that initially the output from the
NAND gate U2 is HIGH at logic level
“1”, then the input must therefore be
LOW at logic level “0” (NAND gate
principles) as will be the output from
the first NAND gate U1. Capacitor, C
is connected between the output of
the second NAND gate U2 and its
input via the timing resistor, R2. The
capacitor now charges up at a rate
determined by the time constant of
R2 and C.
 MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES -ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
Then, the time constant for a NAND gate
Astable Multivibrator is given as T =
2.2RC in seconds with the output
frequency given as f = 1/T.
For example: if the resistor R2 = 10kΩ and
the capacitor C = 45nF, the oscillation
frequency of the circuit would be given
as:
 MULTIVIBRATORS TYPES -ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
Then the output frequency is calculated
as being 1kHz, which equates to a
time constant of 1mS so the output
waveform would look like:
 MULTIVIBRATOR TYPES- BISTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
The Bistable Multivibrators circuit is basically a SR flip-flop that we look at in the
previous tutorials with the addition of an inverter or NOT gate to provide the
necessary switching function. As with flip-flops, both states of a bistable
multivibrator are stable, and the circuit will remain in either state indefinitely. This
type of multivibrator circuit passes from one state to the other “only” when a
suitable external trigger pulse T is applied and to go through a full “SET-RESET”
cycle two triggering pulses are required.
 MULTIVIBRATOR TYPES- BISTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
NAND Gate Bistable Multivibrator
The simplest way to make a Bistable Latch is to
connect together a pair of Schmitt NANDgates to
form a SR latch as shown above. The two NAND
gates, U2 and U3 form the bistable which is
triggered by the input NAND gate, U1. This U1 NAND
gate can be omitted and replaced by a single toggle
switch to make a switch debounce circuit as seen
previously in the SR Flip-flop tutorial.
When the input pulse goes “LOW” the bistable latches
into its “SET” state, with its output at logic level “1”,
until the input goes “HIGH” causing the bistable to
latch into its “RESET” state, with its output at logic
level “0”. The output of a bistable multivibrator will
stay in this “RESET” state until another input pulse
is applied and the whole sequence will start again.
 MULTIVIBRATOR TYPES- BISTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
Bistable Multivibrators have many
applications such as frequency
dividers, counters or as a storage
device in computer memories but they
are best used in circuits such as
Latchesand Counters
 MULTIVIBRATOR TYPES- ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
The 555 Timer is a very versatile low cost timing IC that can produce a very accurate
timing periods with good stability of around 1% and which has a variable timing
period from between a few micro-seconds to many hours with the timing period
being controlled by a single RC network connected to a single positive supply of
between 4.5 and 16 volts.
The NE555 timer and its successors, ICM7555, CMOS LM1455, DUAL NE556 etc, are
covered in the 555 Oscillator tutorial and other good electronics based websites,
so are only included here for reference purposes as a clock pulse generator.
 MULTIVIBRATOR TYPES- ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
The 555 connected as an Astable Multivibrator is shown. Here the 555 timer is
connected as a basic Astable Multivibrator producing a continuous output
waveform. Pins 2 and 6 are connected together so that it will re-trigger itself on
each timing cycle, thereby functioning as an Astable oscillator. Capacitor, C1
charges up through resistor, R1 and resistor, R2 but discharges only through
resistor, R2 as the other side of R2 is connected to the discharge terminal, pin 7.
Then the timing period of t1 and t2 is given as:
• t1 = 0.693 (R1 + R2) C1
• t2 = 0.693 (R2) C1
• T = t1 + t2 = 0.693 (R1 + 2R2)
 MULTIVIBRATOR TYPES- ASTABLE
MULTIVIBRATOR CIRCUITS
The voltage across the capacitor, C1 ranges from
between 1/3 Vcc to approximately 2/3 Vcc
depending upon the RC timing period. This type of
circuit is very stable as it operates from a single
supply rail resulting in an oscillation frequency
which is independent of the supply voltage Vcc.
In the next tutorial about Sequential Logic Circuits, we
will look another type of clock controlled flop-flop
called a Data Latch. Data latches are very useful
sequential circuits which can be made from any
standard gated SR flip-flop and used for frequency
division to produce various ripple counters,
frequency dividers and latches.
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
Feedback occurs when outputs of a system are routed back as inputs as part of a
chain of cause-and-effect that forms a circuit or loop. The system can then be
said to feed back into itself. The notion of cause-and-effect has to be handled
carefully when applied to feedback system.
Feedback Systems are very useful and widely used in amplifier circuits, oscillators,
process control systems as well as other types of electronic systems. But for
feedback to be an effective tool it must be controlled as an uncontrolled system
will either oscillate or fail to function.
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
The basic model of a feedback system is given. This basic feedback loop of sensing,
controlling and actuation is the main concept behind a feedback control system
and there are several good reasons why feedback is applied and used in
electronic circuits:
• Circuit characteristics such as the systems gain and response can be precisely
controlled.
• Circuit characteristics can be made independent of operating conditions such as
supply voltages or temperature variations.
• Signal distortion due to the non-linear nature of the components used can be
greatly reduced.
• The Frequency Response, Gain and Bandwidth of a circuit or system can be easily
controlled to within tight limits.
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS TYPES - POSITIVE
In a “positive feedback control system”, the set point and output values are added
together by the controller as the feedback is “in-phase” with the input. The effect
of positive (or regenerative) feedback is to “increase” the systems gain, ie, the
overall gain with positive feedback applied will be greater than the gain without
feedback. For example, if someone praises you or gives you positive feedback
about something, you feel happy about yourself and are full of energy, you feel
more positive.
However, in electronic and control systems to much praise and positive feedback can
increase the systems gain far too much which would give rise to oscillatory circuit
responses as it increases the magnitude of the effective input signal.
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS TYPES - POSITIVE
Positive feedback control of the op-amp is
achieved by applying a small part of
the output voltage signal at Vout back
to the non-inverting ( + ) input terminal
via the feedback resistor, RF.
If the input voltage Vin is positive, the op-
amp amplifies this positive signal and
the output becomes more positive.
Some of this output voltage is
returned back to the input by the
feedback network.
Thus the input voltage becomes more
positive, causing an even larger
output voltage and so on.
 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS TYPES - POSITIVE
Then if the loop gain is positive for any system the
transfer function will be: Av = G / (1 – GH). Note
that if GH = 1 the system gain Av = infinity and
the circuit will start to self-oscillate, after which
no input signal is needed to maintain oscillations,
which is useful if you want to make an oscillator.
Although often considered undesirable, this
behaviour is used in electronics to obtain a very
fast switching response to a condition or signal.
One example of the use of positive feedback is
hysteresis in which a logic device or system
maintains a given state until some input crosses
a preset threshold. This type of behaviour is
called “bi-stability” and is often associated with
logic gates.
FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS TYPES - NEGATIVE
In a “negative feedback control system”, the set point and output values are
subtracted from each other as the feedback is “out-of-phase” with the original
input. The effect of negative (or degenerative) feedback is to “reduce” the gain.
For example, if someone criticises you or gives you negative feedback about
something, you feel unhappy about yourself and therefore lack energy, you feel
less positive.
Because negative feedback produces stable circuit responses, improves stability and
increases the operating bandwidth of a given system, the majority of all control
and feedback systems is degenerative reducing the effects of the gain.
 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS TYPES - NEGATIVE
Negative feedback control of the amplifier is achieved by
applying a small part of the output voltage signal at Vout
back to the inverting ( – ) input terminal via the feedback
resistor, Rf.
If the input voltage Vin is positive, the op-amp amplifies this
positive signal, but because its connected to the inverting
input of the amplifier, and the output becomes more
negative. Some of this output voltage is returned back to
the input by the feedback network of Rf.
Thus the input voltage is reduced by the negative feedback
signal, causing an even smaller output voltage and so on.
Eventually the output will settle down and become
stabilised at a value determined by the gain ratio of Rf ÷
Rin.
 FEEDBACK AMPLIFIERS TYPES - NEGATIVE
Likewise, if the input voltage Vin is negative, the reverse
happens and the op-amps output becomes positive
(inverted) which adds to the negative input signal. Then we
can see that negative feedback allows the circuit to
function as an amplifier, so long as the output is within the
saturation limits.
Then if the loop gain is positive for any system the transfer
function will be: Av = G / (1 + GH).
The use of negative feedback in amplifier and process control
systems is widespread because as a rule negative
feedback systems are more stable than positive feedback
systems, and a negative feedback system is said to be
stable if it does not oscillate by itself at any frequency
except for a given circuit condition.
CLASSIFICATION OF FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
we have seen the way in which the output signal is “fed back” to the input terminal, and
for feedback systems this can be of either, Positive Feedback or Negative Feedback.
But the manner in which the output signal is measured and introduced into the input
circuit can be very different leading to four basic classifications of feedback.
there are four basic classifications of single-loop feedback system in which the output
signal is fed back to the input and these are:
• Series-Shunt Configuration – Voltage in and Voltage out or Voltage Controlled Voltage
Source(VCVS).
• Shunt-Shunt Configuration – Current in and Voltage out or Current Controlled Voltage
Source(CCVS).
• Series-Series Configuration – Voltage in and Current out or Voltage Controlled Current
Source(VCCS).
• Shunt-Series Configuration – Current in and Current out or Current Controlled Current
Source(CCCS).
 FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Series-Shunt Feedback, also known as series
voltage feedback, operates as a voltage-
voltage controlled feedback system. The error
voltage fed back from the feedback network is
in series with the input. The voltage which is
fed back from the output being proportional to
the output voltage, Vo as it is parallel, or shunt
connected.
 FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Shunt-Series Feedback, also known as shunt
current feedback, operates as a current-
current controlled feedback system. The
feedback signal is proportional to the
output current, Io flowing in the load. The
feedback signal is fed back in parallel or
shunt with the input as shown.
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Series-Series Feedback Systems, also
known as series current feedback,
operates as a voltage-current
controlled feedback system. In the
series current configuration the
feedback error signal is in series with
the input and is proportional to the
load current, Iout. Actually, this type
of feedback converts the current
signal into a voltage which is actually
fed back and it is this voltage which
is subtracted from the input.
FEEDBACK SYSTEMS
Shunt-Shunt Feedback Systems, also
known as shunt voltage feedback,
operates as a current-voltage
controlled feedback system. In
the shunt-shunt feedback
configuration the signal fed back
is in parallel with the input signal.
The output voltage is sensed and
the current is subtracted from the
input current in shunt, and as
such its the currents, not the
voltages that subtract.
NOTES & SOURCES:
• http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/oscillator/rc_oscillator.html
• http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/oscillator/rc_oscillator.html
• http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/systems/feedback-systems.html
• http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/sequential/seq_3.html
• http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/oscillator/wien_bridge.html
• www.allaboutcircuits.com/video-lectures/decibels-amplifier-basics/
• http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/amp_7.html
• http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/amplifier/amplifier-classes.html
• http://www.animations.physics.unsw.edu.au/jw/dB.htm
• https://www.slideshare.net/forwardblog4u/feedback-amplifiers
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_oscillator
• https://www.rapidtables.com/electric/decibel.html#Decibel_Calculator
• https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decibel
ECE REPORT PROJECT – 1-21-2018
SUBMITTED BY:
YJAY D. LAWAS, BSEE -3
ECE 312 MWF 10:30 – 11:30
SUBMITTED TO:
ENGR. JOSELITO VALDEZAMO