Chapter 14:

Science and Technology

“We have arranged things so that almost no one
understands science and technology. This is a
prescription for disaster. We might get away with it
for a while, but sooner or later this combustible
mixture of ignorance and power is going to blow up
in our faces.”
—Carl Sagan, astronomer and astrobiologist
 Chapter Outline

 The Global Context: The Technological Revolution

 Sociological Theories of Science and Technology
 Technology and the Transformation of Society
 Societal Consequences of Science and Technology
 Strategies for Action: Controlling Science and
Technology
 Understanding Science and Technology
 Science and Technology
Introduction

 Science
 The process of discovering, explaining, and predicting
natural or social phenomena.

 Technology
 Activities that apply the principles of science and
mechanics to the solutions of a specific problem.
 Science and Technology
Introduction
 Automation
 Dominant in an industrial society, the replacement
of human labor with machinery and equipment
that is self-operating.
 Mechanization
 Dominant in an agricultural society, the use of
tools to accomplish tasks previously done by
hand.
 Cybernation
 Dominant in a postindustrial society; the use of
machines to control other machines.
 The Global Context:
The Technological Revolution

 The world is a much smaller place than it used to

be, and it will become even smaller as the
technological revolution continues.

 In 2011, the Internet had 2.1 billion users in more

than 200 countries with 240 million users in the
United States.
 The Global Context:
The Technological Revolution

 Although the penetration rate, i.e., the

percentage of people who have access to and use
the Internet in a particular area, is higher in
industrialized countries, there is some movement
toward the Internet becoming a truly global
medium as Africans, Middle Easterners, and Latin
Americans increasingly “get online.”
 For example, although Internet use in the United
States grew 152 percent between 2000 and 2010,
the number of Internet users in Nigeria increased
by 21,891 percent during the same time period.
 The Global Context:
The Technological Revolution
 The United States leads the world in science and technology, although there
is some evidence that we are falling behind . In 2011, the United States,
when compared to 44 other countries and regions:
 Ranked 4th overall in global competitiveness behind Singapore, Finland,
and Sweden.
 Ranked 6th in the rate of science and technology researchers but 39th in
the increase of science and technology researchers between 1999 and
2008.
 Ranked 14th in the number and quality of science and technology
publications but 36th in the increase in the number and quality of
science and technology publications between 1996 and 2009.
 Ranked 5th in corporate investments in information technology but 21st
in the increase in corporate investment in information technology
between 1999 and 2008.
 Ranked 11th in broadband telecommunications, but 21st in the increase
in broadband telecommunications between 2002 and 2009.
 The Global Context:
The Technological Revolution

 The decline of U.S. supremacy in science

and technology is likely to be the result of
several interacting forces:
 First, the federal government has been scaling back
its investment in research and development.
 Second, corporations, the largest contributors to
research and development, have begun to focus on
short-term products and higher profits as pressure
from stockholders mounts.
 The Global Context:
The Technological Revolution

 Decline of U.S. Supremacy Cont’d:

 Third, developing countries, most
notably China and India, are expanding
their scientific and technological
capabilities at a faster rate.
 Fourth, there has been a drop in
science and math education in U.S.
schools, both in terms of quality and
quantity.
 STEM: An acronym for science technology, engineering
and mathematics.
 The Global Context:
The Technological Revolution
What Do You Think?
 The Global Context: The Technological
Revolution
Postmodernism and the Technological Fix

 Postmodernism is the view that rational

thinking and science are limited in their
ability to provide “truths.”
 Many people think social problems can be
resolved through a technological fix:
 A social engineer might approach a water shortage by
asking people to use less water.
 A technologist would develop new technologies to
increase the water supply.
 The Global Context: The Technological
Revolution
Postmodernism and the Technological Fix
 The Global Context:
The Technological Revolution
 Sociological Theories of Science and Technology
Structural-Functionalist Perspective

 Science fulfills the need for an assumed objective

measure of truth.

 If society changes too rapidly, problems may

emerge.

 Cultural lag is a condition in which the material part

of culture changes faster than the nonmaterial part.
 Sociological Theories of Science and Technology
Conflict Perspective

• Technological advances are motivated by profit.

• Funding of research is determined by dominant

groups.

• Science and technology also further the interests of

dominant groups to the detriment of others.

• Finally, conflict theorists as well as feminists argue

that technology is an extension of the patriarchal
nature of society that promotes the interests of men
and ignores the needs and interests of women.
 Sociological Theories of Science and Technology
Symbolic Interactionist Perspective

 Knowledge is relative, it changes over time and

between societies.

 Scientific “truths” are socially constructed and result

from interactions between scientists, researchers,
and the public.

 Who becomes involved in what aspects of science

and technology is socially defined.
Technology and the Transformation of Society
Technology and the Workplace

 Some technology lessens the need for supervisors and

makes control by employers easier.
 Technology can also make workers more accountable by
gathering information about their performance.
 Technology is also changing the location of work.
 Telecommuting has increased as the result of several
interacting social forces over time.
 Telepresencing, a much more technologically
sophisticated version of teleconferencing, allows life-
sized participants in the virtual presence of one
another to realistically communicate through
broadcast quality sound and images.
Technology and the Transformation of Society
Technology and the Workplace
What Do You Think?
Technology and the Transformation of Society
Technology and the Workplace

 Robotic technology has also revolutionized work.

 Ninety percent of robots work in factories, and more

than half of these are used in heavy industry, such
as automobile manufacturing.

 Technology has also changed the nature of work.

Technology and the Transformation of Society
Technology and the Workplace
Technology and the Transformation of Society
The Computer Revolution

• Americans are more likely to use computers at home

rather than at work.
• As with computer use in general, computer use in these
two locations is associated with demographic variables.
• With the exception of age (computer use at home is
highest for 15- to 24-year-olds, whereas computer use at
work is highest for 35- to 44-year-olds), computer use at
home and at work follows the same pattern of overall
computer use.
Technology and the Transformation of Society
The Computer Revolution

• More than 76.6 percent of American households own

computers.

• Desktop ownership has decreased since 2006, and the

proportion of Americans who own laptop computers has
increased from 30 percent to 52 percent between 2006 and
2010.

• Globally, Israel has the highest rate of computer ownership

(122 computers for every 100 people), and Honduras has one
of the lowest, with just 2.5 computers for every 100 people.
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet

 Information and communication

technology, or ICT, refers to any
technology that carries information.
 The concept of an “information society”
dates back to the 1950s, when an
economist identified a work sector he
called “the production and distribution of
knowledge.”
 In 1958, 31 percent of the labor force was
employed in this sector—today, more
Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet
Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet
Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet
Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet

 The internet is the international information

infrastructure (a network of networks) available
through universities, research institutes, government
agencies, and businesses.

 Web 2.0 is a platform for millions of users to

express themselves online in the common areas of
cyberspace.
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet

 E-commerce is the buying and selling of goods

and services over the Internet.

 Despite a slowdown in the economy, or perhaps

because of it, online business-to-customer sales
increased 2.1 percent between 2008 and 2009, and
now represent 47 percent of all retail sales in the
United States
What Do You Think?
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet

 Health and Digital Medicine

 The Internet acts as the third most likely source of
health information preceded only by health
professionals, and friends or family members
 Most online searches result in useful information that
affects health care decisions, including decisions
about seeing a doctor, how to deal with a specific
disease, and diet and exercise information.
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet

 The Search for Knowledge and

Information:
 The Internet, perhaps more than any other
technology, is the foundation of the information
society.
 There is concern, however, that the very way in which
the “Google generation” reads, thinks, and
approaches problems has been altered by the new
technology.
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet

• Games and Entertainment

– Over half of all Americans play video games, although less
than a quarter play video games online;
– Only 9 percent play massive multiplayer online games
(MMOG) such as World of Warcraft, and less than 2 percent
have visited a virtual world such as Second Life (Lenhart
2008).
– Video games are big business, a $25.1 billion industry in
2010.
Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet

 Politics and e-Government

 Technology is changing the world of politics. In 2010,
approximately 73 percent of U.S. adult Internet users
went online to find news or information about the 2010
midterm elections, or to send or receive political
messages through e-mail, instant messaging, Twitter,
and the like.
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Information and Communication Technology and the
Internet

 Social Networking and Blogging

 Social network sites (e.g., Facebook, Twitter) and
blogs comprise a sector of the Internet called
membership communities. Membership
communities have changed in recent years in three
substantively significant ways.
1. First, the number of people who visit
membership communities has increased. In
2010, Facebook topped 500 million members
around the world.
2. Second, the amount of time members spend at a
membership community site has grown
dramatically.
What Do You Think?
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Science and Biotechnology

 Genetics
 Molecular biology has led to a greater understanding
of the genetic material found in all cells, DNA, and
with it the ability for genetic screening.
 Gene therapy involves identifying defective or
missing genes to get a healthy duplicate and
transplant it to the affected cell.
 Genetic engineering is the ability to manipulate and
alter the genes of an organism.
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Science and Biotechnology
 Food and Biotechnology
 Genetic engineering is the ability to manipulate the
genes of an organism in such a way that the natural
outcome is altered.
 Genetically modified (GM) food, also known as
genetically engineered food, and genetically modified
organisms involve this process of DNA
recombination—scientists transferring genes from one
plant into the genetic code of another plant.
 In the United States, genetically modified organisms
(GMOs) are in an estimated 80 percent of all
packaged food sold in the United States and Canada.
Genetically Engineered
Food
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Science and Biotechnology

 Reproductive Technologies:
 The evolution of “reproductive
science” has been furthered by
scientific developments in biology,
medicine, and agriculture.
 In in-vitro fertilization (IVF), an egg
and a sperm are united in a
laboratory dish or test tube.
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Science and Biotechnology

 Abortion: The removal of an embryo or

fetus from a woman’s uterus before it can
survive on its own.
 Intact dilation and extraction (D&X) abortions.
 Opponents refer to them as partial birth
abortions because the limbs and the
torso are delivered before the fetus has
expired.
 Performed because the fetus has a
serious defect, the woman’s health is
jeopardized or both.
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Science and Biotechnology

 Abortion:
 Of the estimated 208 million pregnancies in 2008,
40 percent are unintended; 33 million (16 percent)
resulted in unintended births; and 41 million ended
in abortions (20 percent).
 The lowest abortion rate in the world is in western
Europe.
 The rate of abortions is declining worldwide
 Five million women are hospitalized each year, and
another 70,000 die from complications associated
with unsafe abortions.
 Contraception use has increased in many parts of
What Do You Think?
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Science and Biotechnology

 Abortion:
 Most recent debates concern intact dilation and
extraction (D & E) abortions, which often take place in
the second trimester of pregnancy.
 Opponents refer to such abortions as partial birth
abortions because the limbs and the torso are
typically delivered before the fetus has expired.
Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Science and Biotechnology
 Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Science and Biotechnology

 Therapeutic Cloning
 Uses stem cells from human embryos.
 Stem cells can produce any type of cell in the
human body.
 Stem cells have been used for repairing spinal
cord injuries in mice, allowing them to walk
normally.
 Because the use of stem cells can entail the
destruction of human embryos, many
conservatives, including President Bush, are
opposed to the practice.
Technology and the Transformation of
Society
Science and Biotechnology

 Stem Cell Research

 Christopher Reeve, stage
and movie actor best
known for his portrayal of
Superman, was a
longtime advocate of
federally funded research
on embryonic stem cells.
 He died on October 10,
2004, at the age of 52.
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
Social Relationships, Social Networking, and
Social Interaction

 Technology affects social relationships and the

nature of social interaction.

 The development of telephones has led to fewer

visits with friends and relatives; with the advent of
DVRs, cable television, and video streaming, the
number of places where social life occurs (e.g.,
movie theaters) has declined.

 Even the nature of dating has changed as computer

networks facilitate instant messaging, cyberdates,
and “private” chat rooms. As technology increases,
social relationships and human interaction are
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
Social Relationships, Social Networking, and
Social Interaction

 Although technology can bring people

together, it can also isolate them from each
other.
 For example, children who use a home
computer “spend much less time on sports
and outdoor activities than non-computer
users.”
 A study of more than 1,500 U.S. Internet users
between the ages of 18 and 64 found that, for
every hour a respondent was on the Internet,
there was a corresponding 23.5-minute
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
Social Relationships, Social Networking, and
Social Interaction
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
Loss of Privacy and Security

 Schools, employers, and the government are

increasingly using technology to monitor
individuals’ performance and behavior.

 In 2010, identity theft was the number-one complaint

filed with the Federal Trade Commission for the 11th
year in a row.
What Do You Think?
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
Unemployment, Immigration, and Outsourcing

 Some technologies replace human

workers—robots replace factory workers,
word processors displace secretaries and
typists, and computer-assisted
diagnostics reduce the need for
automobile mechanics.
 Unemployment rates can also increase
when companies outsource (sometimes
called off-shore) jobs to lower-wage
countries.
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
The Digital Divide

 One of the most significant social

problems associated with science and
technology is the increased division
between the classes.
 The fear that technology will produce a
“virtual elite” is not uncommon. Several
theorists hypothesize that, as technology
displaces workers—most notably the
unskilled and uneducated—certain
classes of people will be irreparably
disadvantaged—the poor, minorities, and
Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
The Digital Divide
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
The Digital Divide

 Racial and ethnic minorities’ lack of access to

computers and the Internet, although signaling a
type of digital divide, may be less common than
what researchers are now calling the
participation gap.
 Concern over accessibility to broadband
connectivity has led to a debate over net
neutrality. Net neutrality advocates hold that
Internet users should be able to visit any
website and access any content without Internet
service providers (ISP) (e.g., cable or telephone
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
Mental and Physical Health

 Youth between the ages of 8 and 18 spend an

average of 7 hours and 38 minutes a day
consuming some type of media, and because
more than one medium can be consumed at a
time, the actual total exposure to media per
day is 10 hours and 45 minutes (Kaiser Family
Foundation 2010).
 Media consumption of all types, except for
reading, have increased over the last decade,
and heavier media consumption is associated
with lower levels of reported personal
contentment, boredom, having fewer friends,
and not being happy at school.
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
Mental and Physical Health

 It’s not just behavior patterns that are

altered by technology use. Research
indicates that technology can be dangerous.
 Drivers using cell phones are four times more likely to
cause an accident as those who do not use cell
phones and as likely to cause a crash as a legally
drunk driver.

 Further, the multi-tasking that is associated

with technology is linked to distraction, a
false sense of urgency, and the inability to
focus.
Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
Mental and Physical Health
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
Malicious Use of the Internet

 Internet piracy entails illegally downloading

or distributing copyrighted material (e.g.,
music, games, or software).
 Malware is a general term that includes any
spyware, crimeware, worms, viruses, and
adware that is installed on owners’ computers
without their knowledge.
 Cyber-bullying refers to the use of electronic
devices (e.g., websites, e-mail, instant
messaging, or text messaging) to send or post
negative or hurtful messages or images about
an individual or a group.
What Do You Think?
 Societal Consequences of Science and
Technology
The Challenge to Traditional Values and
Beliefs

• Technological innovations and scientific discoveries

often challenge traditionally held values and beliefs, in
part because they enable people to achieve goals that
were previously unobtainable.

• Toffler (1970) coined the term future shock to describe

the confusion resulting from rapid scientific and
technological changes that unravel our traditional values
and beliefs.
What Do You Think?
 Strategies for Action: Controlling Science and
Technology
Science, Ethics, and the Law

 Science and its resulting technologies alter the

culture of society through the challenging of
traditional values.

 Genetic exception laws require that genetic

information be handled separately from other
medical information leading to what is sometimes
called patient shadow files.
Strategies for Action: Controlling Science and
Technology
Science, Ethics, and the Law
 Strategies for Action: Controlling Science and
Technology
Technology and Corporate America

 The development of genetically altered crops,

the commodification of women as egg donors,
and the harvesting of regenerated organ tissues
are all examples of potentially market-driven
technologies.
 Gene Monopolies: Exclusive control over a
particular gene as a result of government
patents.
 The commercialization of technology causes
several other concerns, including issues of
 Strategies for Action: Controlling Science and
Technology
Runaway Science and Government Policy

 Science and technology raise many public policy

issues.

 Policy decisions, for example, address concerns

about the safety of nuclear power plants, the privacy
of electronic mail, the hazards of chemical warfare,
and the ethics of cloning.
 Strategies for Action: Controlling Science and
Technology
Runaway Science and Government Policy

 The government, often through Congress, regulatory agencies,

or departments, prohibits the use of some technologies (e.g.,
assisted-suicide devices) and requires others (e.g., seat belts).

 For example, in 2011, a bill was introduced in the U.S. House

of Representatives that
 (1) supports the use of embryonic stem cells, including
human embryonic stems cells,
 (2) defines the types of human embryonic stem cells eligible
for use in research (e.g., donated from IVF clinics),
 (3) mandates that the Department of Health and Human
Services maintain, review, and update guidelines in support
of human stem cell research, and
 (4) prohibits public funds be used for human cloning (Stem
 Strategies for Action: Controlling Science and
Technology
Runaway Science and Government Policy
 Understanding Science and
Technology

 As society’s needs change, scientific

discoveries and technological innovations
emerge to meet these needs, thereby serving
the functions of the whole.
 Research indicates that science and the
resulting technologies have both negative and
positive consequences—a technological
dualism.
 Weighing the costs and benefits of technology
poses ethical dilemmas, as does science
itself. Ethics, however, “is not only concerned
What Do You Think?
 Quick Quiz

1. Which level of technological development dominates

agricultural societies?
A. mechanization
B. rationalization
C. cybernation
D. automation
 Answer: A

 Mechanization dominates agricultural societies

 Quick Quiz

2. The manipulation of the genes of an organism in

such a way that the natural outcome is altered is
called what?
A. gene therapy
B. gene splicing
C. genetic engineering
D. genetic screening
 Answer: C

 The manipulation of the genes of an organism in

such a way that the natural outcome is altered is
called genetic engineering.
 Quick Quiz

3. The increasing removal of individuals from the

production process and relegating them to boring,
routine, and meaningless activities promotes:
A. higher morale.
B. deskilling.
C. a reduction in workplace activities.
D. improved quality of work.
 Answer: B

 The increasing removal of individuals from the

production process and relegating them to boring,
routine, and meaningless activities promotes
deskilling.
 Quick Quiz

4. Science and technology furthers the interests of

dominant groups to the detriment of others. This
view is held by which theorists?
A. conflict theorists
B. structural functionalists
C. symbolic interactionists
D. strain theorists
 Answer: A

 Science and technology further the interests of

dominant groups to the detriment of others. This
view is held by conflict theorists.