Problems in the Absence of

Proper Scheduling
Delays in meeting the
due dates of High work-in-
customer orders process
inventory

Low utilization of
High average
ABSENCE OF workers and
completion
PROPER machines (high
time of jobs
SCHEDULING idle time)

Higher set-up time

No accurate
(overall) of
information
machines
available for
Higher cost of
the current
production/
status of a
operations
job

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 Components of Scheduling
Scheduling in job shops involves:

• Assigning tasks to different machines (or work centers)

• Deciding about the sequence of processing of the job on

different machines on the basis of some priority rule (called
sequencing or prioritization)

• Planning the route of movement of the material from one

department to the other during processing (called routing)

• Issuing dispatch lists to the various work centers (called

dispatching)

• Tracking the progress of various jobs scheduled and in case

of delays in the implementation of schedules, revising the
schedules and expediting the completion of certain jobs
(called expediting).
 Forward & Backward
Scheduling
• Forward scheduling means assigning
customer orders or jobs to various work
centers based on the approach “as early as
possible”.

• Backward scheduling is a way of scheduling

which is based on the approach “as late as
possible” with the condition that the jobs are
finished by their due dates of delivery to the
customer.
 Forward and Backward
Scheduling
▶ Forward scheduling starts as soon as the requirements
are known
▶ Produces a feasible schedule though it may not meet
due dates
▶ Frequently results in
buildup of work-in-
process inventory

Due
Now Date

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 Forward and Backward
Scheduling
▶ Backward scheduling begins with the due date and
schedules the final operation first
▶ Schedule is produced by working backwards though the
processes
▶ Resources may not
be available to
accomplish the
schedule

Due
Now Date

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 Loading

• Loading means assigning tasks to work

centers or machines.

• When loading of jobs on machines or work

centers is done keeping in view their
maximum capacity, it is called finite loading.

• Infinite loading means while assigning tasks

to a machine or work center, its maximum
capacity is overlooked.
 Finite and Infinite Loading
▶ Assigning jobs to work stations
▶ Finite loading assigns work up to the capacity of the
work station
▶ All work gets done
▶ Due dates may be pushed out

▶ Infinite loading does not consider capacity

▶ All due dates are met
▶ Capacities may have to be adjusted

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Different Methods of Sequencing/ Assignment of
Jobs on Machines

Scheduling

Sequencing n jobs Sequencing two jobs on n Assigning n jobs

machines in different machine on m machines
sequences (Akers method)

On one On two On three On m

machine machines machines machines

First come, first Last come, In the same job

Assignment
served (FCFS) first served sequence
Model
method (FCFS)
method

Due date Random Johnson’s

method method method

Shortest
processing time
(SPT)) method

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 Sequencing Jobs
▶ Specifies the order in which jobs should be performed
at work centers
▶ Priority rules are used to dispatch or sequence jobs
▶ FCFS: First come, first served
▶ SPT: Shortest processing time
▶ EDD: Earliest due date
▶ LPT: Longest processing time

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 Scheduling Context
• Number of jobs (n)
• Number of machines (m)
• Shop Configuration
o Flow shop
o Job Shop
o Cellular Manufacturing System
• Job Priorities
o FCFS, SPT, LPT, EDD, LS, Random
• Performance Measures
o Due date based: lateness, tardiness
o Completion based: Flow time, make span
o Inventory/cost based
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 Pure Flow Shop
A graphical illustration
Job 1
Job 2
Machine
1
Machine
2
Machine
3
... Machine
m
Job n

• In a flow shop, the resources are organised

one after the other in the order the jobs are
processed
• A pure flow shop is one in which all the jobs
visit all the machines in the same order
(beginning at machine 1 and ending at
machine m)
• In a mixed flow shop, some jobs are
allowed to skip machines in between
 Job Shop
A graphical illustration
Job 1: 1-4-2-5-6
Machine Machine Job 2: 3-2-1-4-6-7
1 3 Job 3: 2-3-4-7-5-6
Job 1
Machine
6
Job 3
Machine

...
4

Machine Machine
2 7
Job 2
Machine
5

In a job shop, machines are not organised in any processing

order. Rather similar type of resources is grouped together
 Scheduling Rules
A sample
Shortest processing time (SPT): Chooses the job with the least
processing time among the competing list and schedules it ahead
of the others
Longest processing time (LPT): The job with the longest
processing time is scheduled ahead of other competing jobs
Earliest Due Date (EDD): Establishes priorities on the basis of
the due date for the jobs.
Critical Ratio (CR): Critical ratio estimates the criticality of the
job by computing a simple ratio using processing time information
and due date. A smaller value of CR indicates that the job is more
critical.
Re maining time ( Due Date  Current Date)
Critical Ratio (CR)  
Re maining Work Re maining Pr oces sin g Time
First Cum First Served (FCFS): Schedules jobs simply in their
order of job arrival
Random Order (RAN): Assign priorities to jobs on a random
basis.
 Scheduling Rules
An illustration of their application
Current time = 0
Processing Order of Random
Job No. time (mins) arrival Due by CR Number
1 12 1 23 1.92 0.233
2 9 2 24 2.67 0.857
3 22 3 30 1.36 0.518
4 11 4 20 1.82 0.951

Rule Rank ordering of jobs based on

SPT 2–4–1–3
LPT 3–1–4–2
EDD 4–2–1–3
CR 3–4–1–2
FCFS 1–2–3–4
RAN 1–3–2–4
 Performance Criteria
• Flow time – the time between the release of
a job to a work center until the job is finished
Sum of total flow time
Average completion time =
Number of jobs
Total job work (processing) time
Utilization metric = Sum of total flow time
Average number of Sum of total flow time
jobs in the system = Total job work (processing) time
Total late days
Average job lateness = Number of jobs

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 Performance Criterion
Due date based measures
• Lateness defined as the difference between
completion time and due date.
If the due date for a job i is denoted as Di, then
Lateness of the job: Li = (Ci – Di)

• If a job is completed ahead of time, instead of

computing a negative value for Li if we take zero,
then the resulting measure is known as tardiness
Tardiness of the job: Ti = max(0, Li)
 Performance Criteria
▶ Flow time – the time between the release of a
job to a work center until the job is finished
Sum of total flow time
Average completion time =
Number of jobs
Job lateness = Max{0, yesterday + flow time – due date}
Total job work (processing) time
Utilization metric = Sum of total flow time
Average number of Sum of total flow time
jobs in the system = Total job work (processing) time
Total late days
Average job lateness = Number of jobs

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 Sequencing Example
Apply the four popular sequencing rules to
these five jobs
Job Work (Processing) Job Due
Time Date
Job (Days) (Days)
A 6 8
B 2 6
C 8 18
D 3 15
E 9 23
 Sequencing Example
FCFS: Sequence A-B-C-D-E
Job Work
Job (Processing) Flow Job Due Job
Sequence Time Time Date Lateness
A 6 6 8 0
B 2 8 6 2
C 8 16 18 0
D 3 19 15 4
E 9 28 23 5
28 77 11
 Sequencing Example
FCFS: Sequence A-B-C-D-E

Sum of total flow time

Average completion time = Number of jobs
= 77/5 = 15.4 days

Total job work (processing) time

Utilization metric = Sum of total flow time = 28/77 = 36.4%

Average number of Sum of total flow time

jobs in the system = Total job work time = 77/28 = 2.75 jobs

Total late days

Average job lateness = Number of jobs = 11/5 = 2.2 days
 Sequencing Example
SPT: Sequence B-D-A-C-E
Job Work
Job (Processing) Flow Job Due Job
Sequence Time Time Date Lateness
B 2 2 6 0
D 3 5 15 0
A 6 11 8 3
C 8 19 18 1
E 9 28 23 5
28 65 9
 Sequencing Example
SPT: Sequence B-D-A-C-E

Sum of total flow time

Average completion time = Number of jobs
= 65/5 = 13 days

Total job work time

Utilization metric = Sum of total flow time = 28/65 = 43.1%

Average number of Sum of total flow time

jobs in the system = = 65/28 = 2.32 jobs
Total job work time

Total late days

Average job lateness = Number of jobs = 9/5 = 1.8 days
 Sequencing Example
EDD: Sequence B-A-D-C-E
Job Work
Job (Processing) Flow Job Due Job
Sequence Time Time Date Lateness
B 2 2 6 0
A 6 8 8 0
D 3 11 15 0
C 8 19 18 1
E 9 28 23 5
28 68 6
 Sequencing Example
EDD: Sequence B-A-D-C-E

Sum of total flow time

Average completion time = Number of jobs
= 68/5 = 13.6 days

Total job work time

Utilization metric = Sum of total flow time = 28/68 = 41.2%

Average number of Sum of total flow time

jobs in the system = = 68/28 = 2.43 jobs
Total job work time

Total late days

Average job lateness = Number of jobs = 6/5 = 1.2 days
 Sequencing Example
LPT: Sequence E-C-A-D-B
Job Work
Job (Processing) Flow Job Due Job
Sequence Time Time Date Lateness
E 9 9 23 0
C 8 17 18 0
A 6 23 8 15
D 3 26 15 11
B 2 28 6 22
28 103 48
 Sequencing Example
LPT: Sequence E-C-A-D-B

Sum of total flow time

Average completion time = Number of jobs
= 103/5 = 20.6 days

Total job work time

Utilization metric = Sum of total flow time = 28/103 = 27.2%

Average number of Sum of total flow time

jobs in the system = = 103/28 = 3.68 jobs
Total job work time

Total late days

Average job lateness = Number of jobs = 48/5 = 9.6 days
 Sequencing Example
Summary of Rules
Average
Average Number of Average
Completion Utilization Jobs in Lateness
Rule Time (Days) Metric (%) System (Days)
FCFS 15.4 36.4 2.75 2.2

SPT 13.0 43.1 2.32 1.8

EDD 13.6 41.2 2.43 1.2

LPT 20.6 27.2 3.68 9.6

 Comparison of
Sequencing Rules
• No one sequencing rule excels on all
criteria
1. SPT does well on minimizing flow time and
number of jobs in the system
► But SPT moves long jobs to
the end which may result
in dissatisfied customers
2. FCFS does not do especially
well (or poorly) on any
criteria but is perceived
as fair by customers
3. EDD minimizes maximum
lateness
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 Critical Ratio (CR)
▶ An index number found by dividing the time
remaining until the due date by the work time
remaining on the job
▶ Jobs with low critical ratios are scheduled
ahead of jobs with higher critical ratios
▶ Performs well on average job lateness criteria

Time remaining Due date – Today's date

CR = =
Workdays remaining Work (lead) time remaining

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 Critical Ratio Example
Currently Day 25

JOB DUE DATE WORKDAYS REMAINING

A 30 4
B 28 5
C 27 2

JOB CRITICAL RATIO PRIORITY ORDER

A (30 - 25)/4 = 1.25 3
B (28 - 25)/5 = .60 1
C (27 - 25)/2 = 1.00 2

With CR < 1, Job B is late. Job C is just on schedule and

Job A has some slack time.
 Critical Ratio Technique
1. Determine the status of a specific job
2. Establish relative priorities among jobs on a common
basis
3. Adjust priorities automatically for changes in both
demand and job progress
4. Dynamically track job progress

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 Johnson’s Rule
An illustration: Example 18.3
Processing time
Job No
Machine 1 Machine 2
1 4 7
2 6 3
3 2 3
4 7 7
5 8 6

Job 3 Job 1 Job 4 Job 5 Job 2

Machine 1 3 3 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 2 2 2 2 2

Machine 2 3 3 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5 2 2 2

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Time units
Maintenance Management

Maintenance management is planning,

organizing, and controlling maintenance
activities such that the overall maintenance
cost is the minimum.
Total Productive Maintenance

Total productive maintenance (TPM) seeks

to maximize equipment effectiveness
throughout the lifetime of that equipment.
Benefits of Maintenance
Management
 Types of Maintenance

There are basically two types of maintenance:

Breakdown maintenance is a reactive approach in

which repairs and replacement of parts are performed
only when the breakdowns occur.

In preventive maintenance, which is a proactive

approach, breakdowns are avoided by following regular
schedules of oiling, cleaning, adjustment, inspection,
and replacement of worn-out parts in the equipment.
Types of Maintenance Costs