HOW THE ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE

UNIVERSE WERE FORMED

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
HOW THE ELEMENTS FOUND IN THE UNIVERSE WERE FORMED
Learning Competencies 1 to 4

Nucleosynthesis: The Beginning of Elements

1. The Formation of the Light Elements in the Big
Bang Theory
2. The Formation of Heavier Elements during Star
Formation and Evolution
3. The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars
4. How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
What is Big Bang
The big bang theory is a
Theory?
cosmological model
stating that the
universe started its
expansion about 13.8
billion years ago. Pieces
of evidence supporting
this theory are (1)
occurrence of redshift,
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory

Redshift
In the 1910s, Vesto Slipher and Carl Wilhelm Wirtz
measured the wavelengths of light from spiral
nebulae, which are interstellar clouds of dust and
ionized gases. They discovered that the light from
the nebulae increased in wavelength. They
explained their discovery as a Doppler shift.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory

Redshift
The Doppler shift or Doppler effect explains that
when an object gets closer to us, its light waves are
compressed into shorter wavelengths (blueshifted).
On the other hand, when an object moves away
from us, its light waves are stretched into longer
wavelengths (redshifted).
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Redshift
Slipher and Wirtz then explained that the redshift or
increase in wavelength was due to the increase in
the distance between the Earth and the nebulae.
They concluded that the redshift occurred due to
In
the1929, Edwin
expansion Hubble used the redshift of light
of space.
from galaxies to calculate the velocities and
distances of these galaxies from the Earth. He
discovered that they were moving away from the
Earth and from each other. His calculations
 NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Cosmic Microwave Background
In 1965, Robert Wilson and
Radiation
Arno Penzias discovered a
low, steady “hum” from their
Holmdel Horn antenna (an
antenna built to support
NASA’s Project Echo). They
concluded that the noise is
Cosmic Microwave
Background Radiation
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory

Abundance of Light
Elements
The observed abundance of light elements supports
the big bang theory. The theory predicts that the
universe is composed of 73% hydrogen and 25%
helium by mass. The prediction correlated to the
measured abundances of primordial material in
unprocessed gas in some parts of the universe with
no stars.
 NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Big bang nucleosynthesis is the process of
producing the light elements during the big bang
In the beginning, the universe
expansion.
was very hot that matter was
fully ionized and dissociated.
Few seconds after the start of
the big bang, the universe was
filled with protons, neutrons,
electrons, neutrinos, and
positrons. After the first three
minutes, the universe cooled
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Protons and neutrons combined to form atomic
nuclei such as deuterium.

However, the temperature of the universe was still

much greater than the binding energy of deuterium.
Binding energy is the energy required to break
down a nucleus into its components. Therefore,
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
When the temperature cooled down below 1010 K,
deuterium nuclei combined with other nuclei to form
Helium-3 was formed from the fusion of two
heavier ones.
deuterium nuclei and a release of a neutron.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Helium-4 was produced from the fusion of deuterium
and tritium.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Tritium or Hydrogen-3 was produced from the
fusion of two deuterium nuclei and a release of a
proton.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Helium-4 was also synthesized from deuterium and
helium-3.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
For the first three minutes, a substantial amount of
neutrons was converted into helium-4 nuclei,
before their decay. Helium then combined to other
nuclei to form heavier ones such as lithium-7 and
beryllium-7.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Lithium-7 was synthesized from helium-4 and
tritium.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Beryllium-7 was produced from helium-3 and
helium-4.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of the Light Elements
in the Big Bang Theory
Formation of Light Elements
Among the light elements formed, deuterium,
helium-3, helium-4, and lithium-7 were stable.
Beryllium-7 was unstable and decayed
spontaneously to lithium-7.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
How were elements heavier than beryllium
formed?
Light elements – hydrogen, helium, lithium, and
beryllium, were formed during the big bang
Elements heavier than beryllium are formed
nucleosynthesis.
through stellar nucleosynthesis. The abundances
of these elements change as the stars evolve.
Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which
elements are formed within stars.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
The star formation theory proposes that stars form
due to the collapse of the dense regions of a
molecular cloud. As the cloud collapses, the
fragments contract to form a stellar core called
protostar.
Due to strong gravitational force, the protostar
contracts and its temperature increases. When the
core temperature reaches about 10 million K, nuclear
reactions begin.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
The reactions release positrons and neutrinos
which increase pressure and stop the contraction.
When the contraction stops, the gravitational
equilibrium is reached, and the protostar has become
a main sequence star.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
In the core of a main sequence star, hydrogen is
fused into helium via the proton-proton chain.
When most of the hydrogen in the core is fused into
helium, fusion stops, and the pressure in the core
Gravity squeezes the star to a point that helium and
decreases.
hydrogen burning occur. Helium is converted to
carbon in the core while hydrogen is converted to
helium in the shell surrounding the core. The star has
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars

When the majority of the helium in the core has been

converted to carbon, then the rate of fusion
decreases. Gravity again squeezes the star.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
In a low-mass star (with mass less than twice the
Sun’s mass), there is not enough mass for a carbon
fusion to occur. The star’s fuel is depleted, and over
time, the outer material of the star is blown off into
space. The only thing that remains is the hot and inert
carbon core. The star becomes a white dwarf.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
However, the fate of a massive star is different. A
massive star has enough mass such that temperature
and pressure increase to a point where carbon fusion
The star goes through a series of stages where
can occur.
heavier elements are fused in the core and in the
shells around the core. The element oxygen is formed
from carbon fusion; neon from oxygen fusion;
magnesium from neon fusion: silicon from magnesium
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
The fusion of elements continues until iron is formed
by silicon fusion. Elements lighter than iron can be
fused because when two of these elements combine,
they produce a nucleus with a mass lower than the
sum of their masses. The missing mass is released as
energy.
Therefore, the fusion of elements lighter than iron
releases energy. However, this does not happen to
iron nuclei. Rather than releasing energy, the fusion
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS
The Formation of Heavier Elements during
Star Formation and Evolution
Evolution of Stars
Therefore, elements lighter than and including iron
can be produced in a massive star, but no elements
heavier than iron are produced.
When the core can no longer produce energy to resist
gravity, the star is doomed. Gravity squeezes the core
until the star explodes and releases a large amount of
energy.
The star explosion is called a supernova.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars

Stellar nucleosynthesis is the process by which

elements are formed in the cores and shells of the
stars through nuclear fusion reactions. Nuclear
fusion is a type of reaction that fuses lighter
elements to form heavier ones. It requires very high
temperatures and pressures. It is the reaction that
fuels the stars since stars have very high
temperatures and pressures in their cores.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars

Hydrogen is the lightest element and the most

abundant in space. Thus, the formation of heavier
elements starts with hydrogen. There are two
dominant hydrogen burning processes, the proton-
proton chain and carbon-nitrogen-oxygen (CNO)
cycle.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars

Proton-Proton Chain
The proton-proton chain is a series of
thermonuclear reactions in the stars. It is the
main source of energy radiated by the sun and
other stars. It happens due to the large kinetic
energies of the protons. If the kinetic energies of
the protons are high enough to overcome their
electrostatic repulsion, then proton-proton chain
proceeds.
 NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars

The chain starts when two protons fuse.

When the fused proton breaks, one proton is
transmuted into a neutron.
The proton and neutron then pairs, forming
an isotope of hydrogen called deuterium.
Another proton collides with a deuterium
forming a helium-3 nucleus and a gamma
ray.
Finally, two helium-3 nuclei collide, and a
helium-4 is created with the release of two
protons.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars

Carbon-Nitrogen-Oxygen (CNO) Cycle

For more massive and hotter stars, the carbon-
nitrogen-oxygen cycle is the more favorable route in
converting hydrogen to helium.
Unlike the proton-proton chain, the CNO cycle is a
catalytic process. Carbon-12 acts a catalyst for the
cycle. It is used in the initial reaction and is
regenerated in the final one.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

The Nuclear Fusion Reactions in Stars

NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only

elements up to iron, then what type of
nucleosynthesis produced the elements
Nucleosynthesis
heavier is the process by which new nuclei
than iron?
are formed from pre-existing or seed nuclei.
The big bang nucleosynthesis produced hydrogen
and helium, whereas the stellar nucleosynthesis
produced elements up to iron in the core of the
stars.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only

elements up to iron, then what type of
nucleosynthesis produced the elements
The stellar
heavier nucleosynthesis
than iron? produced nuclei that are
heavier than helium-4 by nuclear fusion. It started
by fusing two helium-4 nuclei to form beryllium-8
accompanied by a release of energy in the form of
gamma radiation (γ). This process continues until
nickel-56.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only

elements up to iron, then what type of
nucleosynthesis produced the elements
heavier
However,than iron? is unstable and undergoes
nickel-56
positron (0+1β) emission. Recall that positron
emission results in a nucleus with lower atomic
number.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only

elements up to iron, then what type of
nucleosynthesis produced the elements
heavier than
Nickel-56 iron?
radioactively decomposes to a more
stable iron-56 through subsequent emission of two
positrons.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

If the stellar nucleosynthesis produced only
elements up to iron, then what type of
nucleosynthesis produced the elements
The fusion
heavier reactions
than iron? cannot produce nuclei higher
than iron-56 because fusion reaction becomes
unfavorable. This is because the nuclear binding
energy per nucleon, the energy that holds the
nucleus intact, decreases after iron-56. Therefore,
Synthesis of heavierare
different pathways nuclei happens
needed viasynthesis
for the neutron or
of
proton
heaviercapture
nuclei. processes.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

Neutron Capture
In neutron capture, a neutron is added to a seed
nucleus. The addition of neutron produces a heavier
isotope of the element.

For example, iron-56 captures three neutrons to

produce iron-59.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

Neutron Capture
The generated isotope, when unstable, undergoes
beta (0-1β) decay. This decay results in an increase in
the number of protons of the nucleus by 1. Hence, a
heavier nucleus is formed.
Beta decay results in the formation of a new
element. For example, the unstable iron-59
undergoes beta decay to produce cobalt-59.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

Neutron Capture
Neutron capture can either be slow or rapid.
Slow neutron capture or s-process happens
when there is a small number of neutrons. It is
termed slow because the rate of neutron capture is
slow compared to the rate of 0-1β decay. Therefore, if
a 0-1β decay occurs, it almost always occurs before
another neutron can be captured.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

Neutron Capture
Rapid neutron capture or r-process, on the
other hand, happens when there is a large number
of neutrons. It is termed rapid because the rate of
neutron capture is fast that an unstable nucleus
may still be combined with another neutron just
before it undergoes 0-1β decay.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

Neutron Capture
The r-process is associated with a supernova. The
temperature after a supernova is tremendously high
that the neutrons are moving very fast. Because of
their speed, they can immediately combine with the
already heavy isotopes. This kind of nucleosynthesis
is also called supernova nucleosynthesis.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

Proton Capture
Proton capture (p-process) is the addition of a
proton in the nucleus. It happens after a supernova,
when there is a tremendous amount of energy
available. It is because the addition of a proton to
the nucleus is not favorable because of Coulombic
repulsion, which is the repulsive force between
particles with the same charge.
NUCLEOSYNTHESIS: THE BEGINNING OF ELEMENTS

How Elements Heavier than Iron are Formed

Proton Capture
Proton capture produces a heavier nucleus that is
different from the seed nucleus.

For example, molybdenum-94 undergoes proton

capture to produce technetium-95.
QUIZ!!!
 WHAT IS THE MISSING PART OF THE
REACTION?

1.

2.

3.
 WHAT IS THE MISSING PART OF THE
REACTION?

4.

5.
 WHAT IS THE MISSING PART OF THE
REACTION?

6.

7.
ANSWERS
1.

2.

3.
4.

5.
 TRY IT!

6.

7.