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Cold working
Warm working
Hot working
COLD WORKING
Performed at room temperature or slightly above.
Starting work shapes for these processes include cylindrical billets and
rectangular bars or slabs.
1. Forging
2. Rolling
3. Extrusion
4. Rod, Wire and Tube Drawing
FORGING
Forging is a deformation process in which the workpiece is
compressed between two dies, using either impact or gradual
pressure to form the part.
As the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grain
deforms to follow the general shape of the part. As a result, the grain
is continuous throughout the part, giving rise to a piece with improved
strength characteristics.
Open-die forging
Close-die forging
Impression die forging
OPEN-DIE FORGING
If open-die forging is carried out under ideal conditions of no friction between
work and die surfaces, then homogeneous deformation occurs, and the
radial flow of the material is uniform throughout its height, as shown in
Figure.
OPEN-DIE FORGING:
BARRELING EFFECT
When the friction opposes the flow of work metal at the die surfaces, it
creates the barreling effect as shown in the Figure.
Higher coefficient of friction and heat transfer at and near the die surfaces
cools the metal and increases its resistance to deformation. The metal in the
middle of the part flows more readily than the cooler metal at the ends.
These effects are more significant as the diameter-to-height ratio of the work
part increases, due to the greater contact area at the work-die interface.
CLOSED-DIE FORGING
In closed die forging no flash is formed and the workpiece is completely
surrounded by the dies as shown in the Figure. Proper control of the
volume of material vs. die-cavity volume is essential in order to produce a
forging of the desired shape. Undersized billets will prevent the complete
filling of the die cavity and over-sized blanks, slabs, billets etc may cause
premature die failure or jamming of the dies.
IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING
Impression die forging is performed with dies that contain the inverse of
the desired shape of the part as shown in the Figure. As the die closes to
its final position, flash is formed by metal that flows beyond the die cavity
and into the small gap between the die plates. As the flash begins to form
in the die gap, friction resists the continued flow of metal into the gap, thus
constraining the bulk of the work material to remain in the die cavity.
TYPE OF FORGING OPERATIONS
Basic types of forging operations are:
1. Fullering
2. Edging
3. Cogging
4. Coining
5. Piercing
6. Orbital forging
7. Hubbing
8. Heading
9. Roll forging
10. Swaging
TYPE OF FORGING OPERATIONS
Fullering: It is accomplished by dies with convex surfaces while the
material is distributed away from the area.
Edging: Similar to Fullering, except that the dies have concave
surfaces. It is used to shape the ends of the bars and to gather
metal into a localized area.
Cogging: It consists of a sequence of forging compressions
accomplished using open dies with flat or slightly contoured
surfaces. The term incremental forging is sometimes used for this
process.
Fullering Edging
Cogging
TYPE OF FORGING OPERATIONS
Coining: It is a special application of closed-die forging in
which fine details in the die are impressed into the top
and bottom surfaces of the work part. A common
application of coining is the stamping of coins.
Upsetting is widely used in the fastener industry to form heads on nails, bolts, and
similar hardware products. In these applications, the term heading is often used to
denote the operation. Figure 19.23 illustrates a variety of heading applications,
indicating various possible die configurations. Owing to these types of applications,
more parts are produced by upsetting than by any other operation.
FORGING DIES
Proper die design is important in the success of a forging operation.
Parting line: The parting line is the plane that divides the upper die from the lower
die.
Draft: Draft is the amount of taper on the sides of the part required to remove it
from the die. It is made to reduce the shrinkage of the part due to cooling. Typical
draft angles are 3° on aluminum and magnesium parts and 5° to 7° on steel parts.
Webs and ribs: A web is a thin portion of the forging that is parallel to the parting
line, while a rib is a thin portion that is perpendicular to the parting line.
FORGING DIES
Proper die design is important in the success of a forging operation.
Fillet : Small fillet tend to limit metal flow and increase stresses on die surfaces
during forging.
Flash: Flash formation plays a critical role in impression-die forging by causing
pressure buildup inside the die to promote filling of the cavity.
Gutter: In addition to the flash, a provision is made in the die for additional space
so that any excess metal can flow and help in the complete closing of the die.
FORGING EQUIPMENT
Forging equipment of various designs and capacities is illustrated in the Figure.
Screw presses: Screw presses derive their energy from a flywheel and transmit
the forging load through a vertical screw as shown in Figure (b). The presses are
particularly suitable for producing small quantities, producing parts requiring
precision such as turbine blades etc.
Hydraulic presses: These presses have constant low speed of operation. Large
amounts of energy can be transmitted to the workpiece by a constant load that is
available throughout the stroke. Hydraulic presses as shown in Figure (d) are used
for both open-die and closed-die forging operations.
ROLLING
Rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired
shapes by plastic deformation through compressive stresses
using two or more than two rolls.
1. Flat rolling
2. Shape rolling
3. Rolling mills
4. Thread rolling
5. Ring rolling
6. Roll piercing
FLAT ROLLING
It involves the rolling of slabs, strips, sheets, and plates work parts of
rectangular cross section.
In flat rolling, the work is squeezed between two rolls so that its
thickness is reduced by an amount called the Draft.
where r = reduction.
SHAPE ROLLING
In shape rolling, the work is deformed into a contoured
cross section. Products made by shape rolling include
construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and U-
channels; rails for railroad tracks; and round and square
bars and rods as shown in Figure 1.
1. 2 High Mill
2. 3 High Mill
3. 4 High Mill
4. Cluster Mill
5. Tandem Mill
ROLLING MILLS
Figure 2: Various configurations of rolling mills: (a) 2-high, (b) 3-high, (c)
4-high, (d) cluster mill, and (e) tandem rolling mill
THREAD ROLLING
Thread rolling is used to form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling
them between two dies. It is the most important commercial
process for mass producing external threaded components (e.g.,
bolts and screws).
Figure 3: Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle and (2) end of cycle
RING ROLLING
Ring rolling is a deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of
smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter.
The before and after views of the process are illustrated in Figure
4.
Figure 4: Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the
diameter of a ring: (1) start and (2) completion of process
ROLL PIERCING
When a solid cylindrical part is compressed on its circumference,
as in Figure 5a, high tensile stresses are developed at its center. If
compression is high enough, an internal crack is formed. In roll
piercing, this principle is exploited by the setup shown in Figure 5b.
Compressive stresses on a solid cylindrical billet are applied by two
rolls, whose axes are oriented at slight angles (about 6") from the
axis of the billet, so that their rotation tends to pull the billet through
the rolls. A mandrel is used to control the size and finish of the
hole/cavity created by the action.
Figure 5: Roll piercing: (a) formation of internal stresses and cavity by compression of cylindrical
part; and (b) setup of rotary-tube-piercing process for producing seamless tubing
EXTRUSION
Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal
is forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired
cross-sectional shape. The process can be linked to
squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube. There are
several advantages of the extrusion process:
1. Direct extrusion
2. Indirect extrusion
3. Impact extrusion
4. Hydrostatic extrusion
DIRECT EXTRUSION
A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram compresses the
material, forcing it to flow through one or more openings in a die at
the opposite end of the container. As the ram approaches the die, a
small portion of the billet remains that cannot be forced through the
die opening. This extra portion, called the butt, is separated from
the product by cutting it just beyond the exit of the die.
In direct extrusion, significant friction exists between the work
surface and the walls of the container as the billet is forced to slide
toward the die opening. Due to this friction the ram force increases.
DIRECT EXTRUSION:
HOLLOW SECTIONS
Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in direct extrusion by the
process setup as shown in Figure 6. The starting billet is prepared
with a hole parallel to its axis. This allows passage of a mandrel
that is attached to the dummy block. As the billet is compressed the
material is forced to flow through the clearance between the
mandrel and the die opening. The resulting cross section is tubular.
Semi-hollow cross-sectional shapes are usually extruded in the
same way.
Figure 6: (a) Direct Extrusion to produce a hollow section (b) hollow and
(c) semi-hollow cross sections.
INDIRECT EXTRUSION
In Indirect Extrusion, also called backward extrusion and reverse
extrusion, as shown in Figure 7, the die is mounted to the ram
rather than at the opposite end of the container. As the ram
penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to flow through the
clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of the ram. Since the
billet is not forced to move relative to the container, there is no
friction at the container walls, and the ram force is therefore lower
than in direct extrusion.
Figure 8: Impact
extrusion: (a) forward,
(b) backward, and
(c) combination of
forward and backward
HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION
One of the problems in direct extrusion is friction along the billet-
container interface. This problem can be addressed by surrounding
the billet with fluid inside the container and pressurizing the fluid by
the forward motion of the ram, as shown in Figure 9. This way,
there is no friction inside the container, and friction at the die
opening is reduced. Consequently, ram force is significantly lower
than in direct extrusion. Hydrostatic extrusion is an adaptation of
direct extrusion
Figure 10: Common defects in extrusion: (a) center burst, (b) piping, and (c) surface cracking
ROD, WIRE AND TUBE DRAWING
In the context of bulk deformation, drawing is an operation in which
the cross section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it
through a die opening, as in Figure. The general features of the
process are similar to those of extrusion. The difference is that the
work is pulled through the die in drawing, whereas it is pushed
through the die in extrusion. Although the presence of tensile
stresses is obvious in drawing, compression also plays a significant
role because the metal is squeezed down as it passes through the
die opening.
ROD, WIRE AND TUBE DRAWING
The basic difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is the
stock size that is processed. Bar drawing is the term used for large
diameter bar and rod stock, while wire drawing applies to small
diameter stock. Wire sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in) are possible in
wire drawing.
Tube drawing (schematic next slide) can be carried out either with or
without a mandrel. The simplest method uses no mandrel and is used
for diameter reduction, as shown in Figure (previous slide). The
problem with tube drawing in which no mandrel is used is that it lacks
control over the inside diameter and wall thickness of the tube. This is
why mandrels of various types are used, two of which are illustrated in
Figure (next slide).
TYPES OF MANDREL
Fixed Mandrel: Uses a fixed mandrel attached to a long support bar to
establish inside diameter and wall thickness during the operation. Practical
limitations on the length of the support bar in this method restrict the length
of the tube that can be drawn.
Figure 11: Tube drawing with mandrels: (a) fixed mandrel, and (b) floating plug.