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CLASSIFICATION OF

FORMING & SHAPING


PROCESSES & EQUIPMENT
TEMPERATURE IN METAL FORMING
 Any deformation operation can be accomplished with
lower forces and power at elevated temperature.

 Three temperature ranges in metal forming processes


are:

 Cold working
 Warm working
 Hot working
COLD WORKING
 Performed at room temperature or slightly above.

 Many cold forming processes are important in mass production


operations e.g. assembly lines

ADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING VS.


HOT WORKING
 Better accuracy

 Better surface finish

 No heating of workpiece required


DISADVANTAGES OF COLD WORKING
 Higher forces and power required
 Surfaces of workpiece must be free of scale and dirt
 In some operations, metal must be annealed to allow
further deformation
 In other cases, metal is simply not ductile enough to be
cold worked
WARM WORKING
Performed at temperatures above room temperature but
below or within the range of recrystallization
temperature (between 0.3 Tm to 0.5 Tm).

ADVANTAGES OF WARM WORKING


 Lower forces and power than in cold working

 More complex and difficult work geometries possible

 Need for annealing may be reduced or eliminated


HOT WORKING
 Deformation at temperatures above recrystallization
temperature

 Recrystallization temperature is about one-half of


melting point on absolute scale

 In practice, hot working usually performed somewhat


above 0.5Tm

 Metal continues to soften as temperature increases above


0.5Tm, enhancing advantage of hot working above this
level
ADVANTAGES OF HOT WORKING VS.
COLD WORKING
 Workpart shape can be significantly altered
 Lower forces and power required
 Metals that usually fracture in cold working can be hot formed

DISADVANTAGES OF HOT WORKING


 Lower dimensional accuracy
 Higher total energy required (i.e. thermal energy to heat the
workpiece)
 Work surface oxidation (scaling), poorer surface finish
 Shorter tool life
BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES
Metalworking processes in which the workpiece is subjected to plastic
deformation under forces applied through various dies and tooling.

In bulk deformation processes, the parts made have a relatively small


surface-area-to-thickness ratio while it is much higher for sheet metal
forming processes.

Starting work shapes for these processes include cylindrical billets and
rectangular bars or slabs.

Deformation processes are classified by type of operations:

1. Primary working: Operations involve taking a solid piece of metal and


breaking it down successively into materials of various shapes by the
processes of forging, rolling, extrusion etc.

2. Secondary working: Operation involves further processing of the products


from primary working into final products such as bolts, gears and sheet-metal
parts.
BULK DEFORMATION PROCESSES

Primary working operations are classified into:

1. Forging
2. Rolling
3. Extrusion
4. Rod, Wire and Tube Drawing
FORGING
 Forging is a deformation process in which the workpiece is
compressed between two dies, using either impact or gradual
pressure to form the part.

 Forged parts usually require further processing to achieve a


finished part.

 As the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grain
deforms to follow the general shape of the part. As a result, the grain
is continuous throughout the part, giving rise to a piece with improved
strength characteristics.

 Forging is an important industrial process used to make a variety of


high-strength components for automotive, aerospace, and other
applications.
TYPES OF FORGING METHODS

 Open-die forging
 Close-die forging
 Impression die forging
OPEN-DIE FORGING
If open-die forging is carried out under ideal conditions of no friction between
work and die surfaces, then homogeneous deformation occurs, and the
radial flow of the material is uniform throughout its height, as shown in
Figure.
OPEN-DIE FORGING:
BARRELING EFFECT
When the friction opposes the flow of work metal at the die surfaces, it
creates the barreling effect as shown in the Figure.

Higher coefficient of friction and heat transfer at and near the die surfaces
cools the metal and increases its resistance to deformation. The metal in the
middle of the part flows more readily than the cooler metal at the ends.
These effects are more significant as the diameter-to-height ratio of the work
part increases, due to the greater contact area at the work-die interface.
CLOSED-DIE FORGING
In closed die forging no flash is formed and the workpiece is completely
surrounded by the dies as shown in the Figure. Proper control of the
volume of material vs. die-cavity volume is essential in order to produce a
forging of the desired shape. Undersized billets will prevent the complete
filling of the die cavity and over-sized blanks, slabs, billets etc may cause
premature die failure or jamming of the dies.
IMPRESSION-DIE FORGING
Impression die forging is performed with dies that contain the inverse of
the desired shape of the part as shown in the Figure. As the die closes to
its final position, flash is formed by metal that flows beyond the die cavity
and into the small gap between the die plates. As the flash begins to form
in the die gap, friction resists the continued flow of metal into the gap, thus
constraining the bulk of the work material to remain in the die cavity.
TYPE OF FORGING OPERATIONS
Basic types of forging operations are:

1. Fullering
2. Edging
3. Cogging
4. Coining
5. Piercing
6. Orbital forging
7. Hubbing
8. Heading
9. Roll forging
10. Swaging
TYPE OF FORGING OPERATIONS
Fullering: It is accomplished by dies with convex surfaces while the
material is distributed away from the area.
Edging: Similar to Fullering, except that the dies have concave
surfaces. It is used to shape the ends of the bars and to gather
metal into a localized area.
Cogging: It consists of a sequence of forging compressions
accomplished using open dies with flat or slightly contoured
surfaces. The term incremental forging is sometimes used for this
process.

Fullering Edging

Cogging
TYPE OF FORGING OPERATIONS
Coining: It is a special application of closed-die forging in
which fine details in the die are impressed into the top
and bottom surfaces of the work part. A common
application of coining is the stamping of coins.

Piercing: In this process, a punch indents (cuts or tears)


the workpiece surface to produce a cavity or an
impression with a specific shape.
TYPE OF FORGING OPERATIONS
Orbital forging: In this process, deformation occurs by means of a cone-
shaped upper die that is simultaneously rolled and pressed into the work
part. The work is supported on a lower die, which has a cavity into which the
work is compressed.

Hubbing: Hubbing is a deformation process in which a hardened steel form


is pressed into a soft steel (or other soft metal) block to make mold cavities
for plastic molding and die casting.
TYPE OF FORGING OPERATIONS
Heading: This is basically an upsetting operation, typically performed at
the end of a rod to produce a shape with larger cross-section.
Examples are the heads of bolts, screws, nails etc.

Roll forging: In roll forging, the cross-sectional area of a bar is reduced


and altered in shape by passing it through a pair or sets of grooved
rolls of various shapes.
TYPE OF FORGING OPERATIONS
Swaging: It is a forging process in which the dimensions of an item are
altered using a die or dies, into which the item is forced. It is used in
manufacturing round bars, tubes etc .
Upsetting and Heading Upsetting (also called upset forging) is a deformation
operation in which a cylindrical work part is increased in diameter and reduced in
length. This operation was analyzed in our discussion of open-die forging (Section
19.3.1). However, as an industrial operation, it can also be performed as closed-die
forging, as seen in Figure 19.22.

Upsetting is widely used in the fastener industry to form heads on nails, bolts, and
similar hardware products. In these applications, the term heading is often used to
denote the operation. Figure 19.23 illustrates a variety of heading applications,
indicating various possible die configurations. Owing to these types of applications,
more parts are produced by upsetting than by any other operation.
FORGING DIES
Proper die design is important in the success of a forging operation.

Parting line: The parting line is the plane that divides the upper die from the lower
die.
Draft: Draft is the amount of taper on the sides of the part required to remove it
from the die. It is made to reduce the shrinkage of the part due to cooling. Typical
draft angles are 3° on aluminum and magnesium parts and 5° to 7° on steel parts.
Webs and ribs: A web is a thin portion of the forging that is parallel to the parting
line, while a rib is a thin portion that is perpendicular to the parting line.
FORGING DIES
Proper die design is important in the success of a forging operation.

Fillet : Small fillet tend to limit metal flow and increase stresses on die surfaces
during forging.
Flash: Flash formation plays a critical role in impression-die forging by causing
pressure buildup inside the die to promote filling of the cavity.
Gutter: In addition to the flash, a provision is made in the die for additional space
so that any excess metal can flow and help in the complete closing of the die.
FORGING EQUIPMENT
Forging equipment of various designs and capacities is illustrated in the Figure.

(a) (b) (c) (d)


FORGING EQUIPMENT
Hammers: Hammers as shown in the Figure (a) derive their energy from the
potential energy of the ram, which is then converted to kinetic energy; thus
hammers are energy limited. In power hammers, the ram is accelerated in the
downstroke by steam or air. Several blows may have to be made on the part to
finalize its shape.

Screw presses: Screw presses derive their energy from a flywheel and transmit
the forging load through a vertical screw as shown in Figure (b). The presses are
particularly suitable for producing small quantities, producing parts requiring
precision such as turbine blades etc.

Mechanical presses: Mechanical presses as shown in Figure (c) are stroke


limited with speeds varying from a maximum at the centre of the stroke to zero at
the bottom. The force available depends on the stroke position and becomes
extremely large at the center position.

Hydraulic presses: These presses have constant low speed of operation. Large
amounts of energy can be transmitted to the workpiece by a constant load that is
available throughout the stroke. Hydraulic presses as shown in Figure (d) are used
for both open-die and closed-die forging operations.
ROLLING
 Rolling is the most rapid method of forming metal into desired
shapes by plastic deformation through compressive stresses
using two or more than two rolls.

 The main objective of rolling is to convert larger sections


such as billets/ingots into smaller sections.

 This is an effective method to reduce grain size and


refine the microstructure in metals, resulting in improved
strength and good ductility.

 Rolling process is being widely used in the production of


large number of useful products such as Rails, Sheets,
Structural Sections, Plates etc
TYPES OF ROLLING OPERATIONS
Basic types of rolling operations are:

1. Flat rolling
2. Shape rolling
3. Rolling mills
4. Thread rolling
5. Ring rolling
6. Roll piercing
FLAT ROLLING
It involves the rolling of slabs, strips, sheets, and plates work parts of
rectangular cross section.

In flat rolling, the work is squeezed between two rolls so that its
thickness is reduced by an amount called the Draft.

where, d=draft, mm; to=starting thickness, mm; and tf=final thickness,


mm .

Draft is sometimes expressed as a fraction of the starting stock


thickness, called the Reduction.

where r = reduction.
SHAPE ROLLING
In shape rolling, the work is deformed into a contoured
cross section. Products made by shape rolling include
construction shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and U-
channels; rails for railroad tracks; and round and square
bars and rods as shown in Figure 1.

The process is accomplished by passing the work


through rolls that have the reverse of the desired shape.

Shaping rolls are more complicated; and the work,


usually starts as a square shape, requires a gradual
transformation through several rolls in order to achieve
the final cross section.
FLAT AND SHAPE ROLLING

Figure 1: Schematic outline of various flat-rolling and shape rolling operations


ROLLING MILLS
The basic rolling mill consists of two opposing rolls and is referred
to as a two-high rolling mill. The rolls in these mills have diameters
in the range 0.6-1.4 m. The two-high configuration can be either
reversing or non-reversing.

In the non-reversing mill, the rolls always rotate in the same


direction, and the work always passes through from the same side.
The reversing mill allows the direction of roll rotation to be
reversed, so that the work can be passed through in either
direction. This permits a series of reductions to be made through
the same set of rolls, simply by passing through the work from
opposite directions multiple times. Following types of configuration
are available as shown in the Figure 2 (next slide):

1. 2 High Mill
2. 3 High Mill
3. 4 High Mill
4. Cluster Mill
5. Tandem Mill
ROLLING MILLS

Figure 2: Various configurations of rolling mills: (a) 2-high, (b) 3-high, (c)
4-high, (d) cluster mill, and (e) tandem rolling mill
THREAD ROLLING
Thread rolling is used to form threads on cylindrical parts by rolling
them between two dies. It is the most important commercial
process for mass producing external threaded components (e.g.,
bolts and screws).

The dies are of two types:


(1) Flat dies, which reciprocate relative to each other
(2) Round dies, which rotate relative to each other

Figure 3: Thread rolling with flat dies: (1) start of cycle and (2) end of cycle
RING ROLLING
Ring rolling is a deformation process in which a thick-walled ring of
smaller diameter is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger diameter.
The before and after views of the process are illustrated in Figure
4.

Applications of ring rolling include steel tires for railroad wheels,


and rings for pipes, pressure vessels, and rotating machinery.

Figure 4: Ring rolling used to reduce the wall thickness and increase the
diameter of a ring: (1) start and (2) completion of process
ROLL PIERCING
When a solid cylindrical part is compressed on its circumference,
as in Figure 5a, high tensile stresses are developed at its center. If
compression is high enough, an internal crack is formed. In roll
piercing, this principle is exploited by the setup shown in Figure 5b.
Compressive stresses on a solid cylindrical billet are applied by two
rolls, whose axes are oriented at slight angles (about 6") from the
axis of the billet, so that their rotation tends to pull the billet through
the rolls. A mandrel is used to control the size and finish of the
hole/cavity created by the action.

Figure 5: Roll piercing: (a) formation of internal stresses and cavity by compression of cylindrical
part; and (b) setup of rotary-tube-piercing process for producing seamless tubing
EXTRUSION
Extrusion is a compression process in which the work metal
is forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired
cross-sectional shape. The process can be linked to
squeezing toothpaste out of a toothpaste tube. There are
several advantages of the extrusion process:

(1) A variety of shapes are possible


(2) Grain structure and strength properties are enhanced.
(3) In some extrusion operations, little or no wasted material
is created.
TYPES OF EXTRUSION OPERATIONS

Basic types of extrusion operations are:

1. Direct extrusion
2. Indirect extrusion
3. Impact extrusion
4. Hydrostatic extrusion
DIRECT EXTRUSION
A metal billet is loaded into a container, and a ram compresses the
material, forcing it to flow through one or more openings in a die at
the opposite end of the container. As the ram approaches the die, a
small portion of the billet remains that cannot be forced through the
die opening. This extra portion, called the butt, is separated from
the product by cutting it just beyond the exit of the die.
In direct extrusion, significant friction exists between the work
surface and the walls of the container as the billet is forced to slide
toward the die opening. Due to this friction the ram force increases.
DIRECT EXTRUSION:
HOLLOW SECTIONS
Hollow sections (e.g., tubes) are possible in direct extrusion by the
process setup as shown in Figure 6. The starting billet is prepared
with a hole parallel to its axis. This allows passage of a mandrel
that is attached to the dummy block. As the billet is compressed the
material is forced to flow through the clearance between the
mandrel and the die opening. The resulting cross section is tubular.
Semi-hollow cross-sectional shapes are usually extruded in the
same way.

Figure 6: (a) Direct Extrusion to produce a hollow section (b) hollow and
(c) semi-hollow cross sections.
INDIRECT EXTRUSION
In Indirect Extrusion, also called backward extrusion and reverse
extrusion, as shown in Figure 7, the die is mounted to the ram
rather than at the opposite end of the container. As the ram
penetrates into the work, the metal is forced to flow through the
clearance in a direction opposite to the motion of the ram. Since the
billet is not forced to move relative to the container, there is no
friction at the container walls, and the ram force is therefore lower
than in direct extrusion.

Figure 7: Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross section


and (b) a hollow cross section
IMPACT EXTRUSION
Impact extrusion is performed at higher speeds and shorter strokes
than conventional extrusion. It is used to make individual components.
The punch impacts the work part rather than simply applying pressure
to it. Impacting can be carried out as forward extrusion, backward
extrusion, or combinations of these. Backward impact extrusion is
most common. Products made by this process include toothpaste
tubes and battery cases.

Figure 8: Impact
extrusion: (a) forward,
(b) backward, and
(c) combination of
forward and backward
HYDROSTATIC EXTRUSION
One of the problems in direct extrusion is friction along the billet-
container interface. This problem can be addressed by surrounding
the billet with fluid inside the container and pressurizing the fluid by
the forward motion of the ram, as shown in Figure 9. This way,
there is no friction inside the container, and friction at the die
opening is reduced. Consequently, ram force is significantly lower
than in direct extrusion. Hydrostatic extrusion is an adaptation of
direct extrusion

Figure 9: Hydrostatic extrusion


DEFECTS IN EXTRUSION
Center burst: This defect is an internal crack that develops as a
result of tensile stresses along the centreline of the work part
during extrusion.
Piping: Piping is a defect associated with direct extrusion. It is the
formation of a sink hole in the end of the billet.
Surface cracking: This defect results from high work part
temperatures that cause cracks to develop at the surface. They
often occur when extrusion speed is too high, leading to high strain
rates and associated heat generation.

Figure 10: Common defects in extrusion: (a) center burst, (b) piping, and (c) surface cracking
ROD, WIRE AND TUBE DRAWING
In the context of bulk deformation, drawing is an operation in which
the cross section of a bar, rod, or wire is reduced by pulling it
through a die opening, as in Figure. The general features of the
process are similar to those of extrusion. The difference is that the
work is pulled through the die in drawing, whereas it is pushed
through the die in extrusion. Although the presence of tensile
stresses is obvious in drawing, compression also plays a significant
role because the metal is squeezed down as it passes through the
die opening.
ROD, WIRE AND TUBE DRAWING
The basic difference between bar drawing and wire drawing is the
stock size that is processed. Bar drawing is the term used for large
diameter bar and rod stock, while wire drawing applies to small
diameter stock. Wire sizes down to 0.03 mm (0.001 in) are possible in
wire drawing.

Wire drawing is an important industrial process, providing commercial


products such as electrical wire and cable; wire stock for fences, coat
hangers, and shopping carts; screws, rivets, springs, and other
hardware items. Bar drawing is used to produce metal bars for
machining, forging, and other processes.
WIRE DRAWING
Wire drawing is a metalworking process used to reduce the
diameter of a wire by pulling the wire through a single, or series
of drawing dies.
TUBE DRAWING
Tube drawing is a metalworking process to size tube by shrinking a
large diameter tube into a smaller one, by drawing the tube through
a die. This process produces high quality tubing with precise
dimensions, good surface finish, and the added strength of cold
working.

Tube drawing (schematic next slide) can be carried out either with or
without a mandrel. The simplest method uses no mandrel and is used
for diameter reduction, as shown in Figure (previous slide). The
problem with tube drawing in which no mandrel is used is that it lacks
control over the inside diameter and wall thickness of the tube. This is
why mandrels of various types are used, two of which are illustrated in
Figure (next slide).
TYPES OF MANDREL
Fixed Mandrel: Uses a fixed mandrel attached to a long support bar to
establish inside diameter and wall thickness during the operation. Practical
limitations on the length of the support bar in this method restrict the length
of the tube that can be drawn.

Floating Plug: A floating plug whose shape is designed so that it finds a


"natural" position in the reduction zone of the die. This method removes the
limitations on work length present with the fixed mandrel.

Figure 11: Tube drawing with mandrels: (a) fixed mandrel, and (b) floating plug.

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