Chapter 1 Atoms, Molecules

and Stoichiometry

Significant Figure,
Chemical Nomenclature and
Chemical Equations
 Significant Figure (s.f.)
3.78 : 3 s.f.
2.9 : 2 s.f.
15.0 : 3 s.f.
23.65 : 4 s.f.
0.600 : 3 s.f.
0.60 : 2 s.f.
14800 : 3 s.f.
 Decimal Places (d.p.)
 25 : 0 d.p.
 25.0 : 1 d.p.
 25.00 : 2 d.p.
 3.147 : 3 d.p.
 Significant Figures in Calculations
Addition and Subtraction

 When adding or subtracting measured quantities, give

the same number of decimal places in the answer as
there are in the measurement with least number of
decimal places.

 Suppose you measure 83.5 cm3 water in a graduated

cylinder and add 23.28 cm3 protein solution from a
burette. The total volume is

83.5 cm3 + 23.28 cm3 = 106.78 cm3 = 106.8 cm3

Multiplication and Division

 When multiplying or dividing measured quantities, give

as many significant figures in the answer as there are
in the measurement with the least number of
significant figures.

 Suppose you are determining the volume of sheet of a

new graphite composite.
The length (9.2 cm) and width (6.8 cm) are obtained
with a meter stick and the thickness (0.3744 cm) with
a micrometer. The volume calculation would be

9.2 cm x 6.8 cm x 0.3744 cm = 23.4225 cm3 = 23 cm3

 Exact Numbers
 An Exact number is a number that arises when you count
items or sometimes when you define a unit.
 For example when you say there are 9 coins in a bottle,
you mean exactly 9, not 8.9 or 9.1.
 Also, when you say there are 60 minutes to an hour, you
mean exactly 60.
 Any numbers in a calculation that are exact, have no
effect on the number of significant figures in a calculation.
 For example, suppose you want the total mass of 9 coins
when each coin has a mass of 3.0 grams.
The calculation is
3.0 grams x 9 = 27 grams.

 You report the answer to two significant figures because

3.0 grams has two significant figures. The number 9 is
exact and does not determine the number of significant
figures.
 Significant Figures
 Addition (+) & subtraction (-):
follow the least decimal point.

 Multiplication (x) & division (÷):

follow the least significant figure.

+, - : least d.p.

x, ÷ : least s.f.
Chemical Nomenclature
 Strong Acids
 HCl (aq): hydrochloric acid

 H2SO4 (aq): sulfuric acid

 HNO3 (aq): nitric acid

 Strong Bases
 NaOH (aq): sodium hydroxide

 KOH (aq): potassium hydroxide

 Ba(OH)2 (aq): barium hydroxide

 Weak acids
 CH3COOH (aq): ethanoic acid

 H2CO3 (aq): carbonic acid

 H3PO4 (aq): phosphoric acid

 Weak Bases
 NH3 (aq): ammonia solution /
ammonia aqueous

*note: NH3 (g): ammonia gas

NH3 (aq): ammonia aqueous
NH4+ (aq) ammonium ion
 State Symbol
s : solid
l : liquid
g : gas
aq: aqueous

 Example: Mg (s)
H2O (l)
NaCl (aq)
Br- (aq)
 Gases
 O2 (g): oxygen gas
 Cl2 (g): chlorine
 H2 (g): hydrogen
 CO (g): carbon monoxide
 CO2 (g): carbon dioxide
 N2 (g): nitrogen
 NO (g): nitrogen monoxide
 NO2 (g): nitrogen dioxide
 SO2 (g): sulfur dioxide
 SO3 (g): sulfur trioxide
 Compounds
 CH4: methane
 C2H6: ethane
 C2H4: ethene
 CH3OH: methanol
 CH3CH2OH: ethanol
 Cations (positive ions)
Na+ sodium
K+ potassium
Ba2+ barium
Mg2+ magnesium
Ca2+ calcium
Al3+ aluminum
Ag+ silver
NH4+ ammonium
Cu2+ copper (II)
Sn2+ tin (II)
Pb2+ lead (II)
Cr3+ chromium (III)
 Anions (negative ions)
Cl- chloride
Br- bromide
I- iodide
F- fluoride

NO3- nitrate
NO2- nitrite

OH- hydroxide
MnO4- manganate (VII)
SO42- sulfate
SO32- sulfite
S2- sulfide
S2O32- thiosulfate

CO32- carbonate
CrO42- chromate
Cr2O72- dichromate (VI)

O2- oxide

PO43- phosphate
 Writing Formulae
 Sodium chloride:
Na+ Cl-
1 1

Na1Cl1  NaCl

Exercise:
 calcium sulfate

 iron (II) oxide

 sodium thiosulphate
 lithium hydroxide

 lead (IV) oxide

Chemical Equations
 Solubility
1. All sodium, potassium & ammonium salts are
soluble.
2. All nitrates are soluble. (aq)
3. All chlorides are soluble except AgCl (s), PbCl2(s)
(soluble in hot water).
4. All sulfate are soluble except BaSO4 (s), PbSO4 (s),
CaSO4 (s) (partially soluble)
5. All oxides and carbonate are insoluble except
sodium, potassium & ammonium
oxides/carbonates, and CaO.
6. All hydroxides are insoluble except NaOH, KOH,
NH4OH, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2.
Balance these equations:

1. __ Fe + __ H2O → __ Fe3O4 + __ H2

2. __ Cu + __ Ag+ → __ Cu2+ + __ Ag

3. __ Cl2 + __ Br- → __ Cl- + __ Br2

4. __ CH4 + __ O2 → __ CO2 + __ H2O

5. __ C6H6 + __ O2 → __ CO2 + __ H2O

 Stoichiometry Equations
Q: Write balanced equation (include state
symbols)

1. iron + sulfuric acid → iron (II) sulfate +

hydrogen
Fe (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → FeSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

2. copper + silver nitrate → copper (II) nitrate

+ silver
Cu(s) + 2 AgNO3 (aq) → Cu(NO3)2 (aq) +
2Ag (s)
 Chemical Equations
1. Neutralisation
(a) acid & alkali
H+ (aq) + OH- (aq) → H2O (l)

(b) base (metal oxide) + acid

MO (s) + H+ (aq) → M2+ (aq) + H2O (l)

Eg,
HCl (aq) + NaOH (aq) → NaCl (aq) + H2O (l)
MgO (s) + 2HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l)
 Application of neutralisation in daily life

 HCl in stomach vs. gastric medicine (anti-

acids: (NaCO3, Mg(OH)2 ) – neutralised

 Shampoo (weak alkali) vs Conditioner (weak

acid)
- can neutralise shampoo and cause hair to
feel soft and easy to style.

 Insect bites such as from ants and

mosquitoes, contain acid such as formic acid.
Antiseptic that is alkaline can neutralise the
acid from the bite and reduce the pain.
 Bee stings are alkaline. Antiseptics
that contains weak acids can be
applied.

 Bacteria in our mouth can produce

acid that decays our teeth.
Toothpaste which contains base,
Mg(OH)2 can neutralise the acid in
our mouth.
2. Metal carbonate + acid

Eg,
Na2CO3 (aq) +2HCl (aq) → 2NaCl (aq) + CO2(g)
+ H2O (l)

CaCO3 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq) → Ca(NO3)2 (aq) +

CO2 (g) + H2O (l)
3. Metal + acid (M=Metal)
M (s) + 2 H+ (aq) → M2+ (aq) + H2 (g)

Eg,

Mg (s) + H2SO4 (aq) → MgSO4 (aq) + H2(g)

4. Precipitation
An+ (aq) + Bn- (aq) → AB (s)

Eg,
AgNO3 (aq) + NaCl (aq) → AgCl (s) +NaNO3 (aq)
5. Displacement
Zn (s) + CuSO4 (aq) → ZnSO4 (aq)+ Cu (s)

Ionic Equation:
Zn (s) + Cu2+ (aq) → Zn2+ (aq) + Cu (s)
 Oxidation State/ Number
(OS/ ON)
1.Oxygen in the compound has OS=-2
except in peroxide

H2O OS for O in H2O=-2

MgO OS for O in MgO=-2
H2O2 OS for O in H2O2 =-1
Na2O2 OS for Oin Na2O2=-1
2.Hydrogen in the compound has OS =
+1 except hydrides.

HCl OS for H in =+1

H2O OS for H in H2O =+1
NaH OS for H in NaH =-1
Hydrides
MgH2 OS for H in MgH2 = -1
3. Group 1 metals and group 2 metals in
a compound, their OS=+1 & +2
respectively.

NaH OS for Na in NaH=+1

MgH2 OS for Mg in NgH2=+2

4. The OS for the ions is consistent
with the charge of the ions.

Zn2+ OS of Zn2+=+2
Cl- OS of Cl- = -1
5. Halides (halogen) have OS =-1 except
those combine with the more
electronegative atoms such as oxygen
and fluorine.

sodium clorate (I)

NaClO CrO42-
+1 x -2 x -2

1 + x +(– 2) = 0 x + 4(-2) = -2
x = +1 x = +6
 Exercise
Find the oxidation state
1. NO3-

2. VO3
+

3. S2O32-

4. NH4+

5. CO2

6. Na2CO3.10H2O

7. CuSO4

8. NH3

9. MnO4-
 BM: Hasil

Yields of Chemical Reactions

 The calculated quantity of product

in a reaction – theoretical yield
- by theory/equationn

 The measured quantity of product

in a reaction – actual yield
- done in experiment
 Yields are usually expressed as
percentages.

Percent yield = actual yield x 100%

theoretical yield
 Example 1
Fe + CuSO4 → FeSO4 + Cu
Actual yield of FeSO4 = 0.390 g
Theoretical yield = 0.635 g
What is the percent yield of FeSO4?

Percent yield = actual yield x 100%

theoretical yield

Percent yield = 0.390 g x 100%

0.635 g
= 61.4%