Introduction to

the t Statistic
 Different Types of t-tests
• t-test for single sample
• t-test for independent samples
• t-test for dependent (related) samples, or
paired samples t-test

• t-tests are used when the independent or

predictor variable is dichotomous (categorical
with two levels), and the dependent or
outcome variable is continuous.
 t-test for Single Sample
• An alternative to z-test
• The z-test requires more information than is usually
available
• If the information about the standard deviation of the
population is not available, one cannot compute for
the standard error between the population mean and
the sample mean, hence we cannot compute for a z-
score
• When the variability for the population is not known,
we use the sample variability in its place to be able to
compute for the estimated standard error.
 t-test for Single Sample
• The t statistic is used to test hypotheses about
an unknown population mean when the value
of the population standard deviation is
unknown.
• The formula for the t statistic has the same
structure as the z-score formula, except that
the t statistic uses the estimated standard
error.
 A Review of the z-score Formula

M–μ Sample mean – hypothesized population mean

z = ----------- z= --------------------------------------------
Standard error between M and μ
σM
μ = Population Mean
σ
σM = ----------- σ = Population standard deviation
√n σ2 = Population Variance
σ 2 σM = Standard error bet. M and μ
σM = -----
√ n n = sample size
 Review of the
Standard Deviation Formula
(Σ X) 2
SS = ΣX2 - ----------
N
SS
s = √ ----------
N-1

s2 SS
= ----------
N-1
• SS = Sum of squared deviations
• s = Standard deviation of the sample
• s2 = Variance of the sample
 The t Statistic Formula

M–μ Sample mean – hypothesized population mean

t = ----------- t= --------------------------------------------
Estimated standard error between M and μ
sM

s
sM = ----------- μ = Population Mean (Hypothesize Mean)
√n s = Sample standard deviation
s2 = Sample Variance
s 2
sM = -----
√ n
sM = Estimated Standard error bet. M and μ
n = sample size
 Comparing z and t Formulas

M–μ M–μ
zobt = --------- = -------------
σM √ σ2 / n

M–μ M–μ
tobt = --------- = -------------
sM √ s2 / n
 Calculating tobt from
Original Scores
• When the original scores are available, the t
can be calculated directly without first having
to calculate s.
M–μ
tobt = -----------
√ SS
--------
N(N-1)
 Exercise
• You have a technique that you believe will affect
the age at which children begin speaking. In your
locale, the average age of first word utterance is
13.0 months; the standard deviation is unknown.
You apply your technique to a random sample 15
children
– What is the nondirectional alternative hypothesis?
– What is the null hypothesis?
– Did the technique work? Use α = 0.052 tail
 Age (Month) X Computation of X2
8
9
10
15
18
17
12
11
7
8
10
11
9
8
12
ΣX= M= ΣX2 =
 The t Distribution
• Used instead of the normal distribution
• The shape of the t distribution changes with the degree
of freedom.
• It becomes more approximate to the normal
distribution as the Degrees of Freedom (n – 1)
increases
• Degrees of freedom describe the number of score in a
sample that are free to vary. Because the sample mean
places a restriction on the value of one score in the
sample, there are n- 1 degrees of freedom for the
sample; will be basis for determining the tcrit
The t Distribution
 Decision
• If the tobt is greater than or equal to the tcrit,
reject the H0
• If the p value is equal to or less than the
alpha, reject the H0
 Effect Size

Mean difference
Cohen’s d = ----------------------------
Sample Standard
deviation
T-TEST FOR
INDEPENDENT SAMPLES
 Overview
• Most research studies require the comparison
of two or more set of data.
– The two set of data could come from to
completely separate samples – Independent
measures ; Between-subjects design
– The two sets of data could both come from the
same sample – Repeated-measure; Within-
Subjects Design
 Independent-Measures
• The goal of independent-measures design is
to evaluate the differences in means between
two populations or two treatment conditions.
Sample mean – hypothesized population mean
t = --------------------------------------------
Estimated standard error between M and μ

Sample mean difference –population mean difference

t = -----------------------------------------------------
Estimated standard error between M and μ differences

(M – M ) – (μ – μ )
1 2 1 2
t = --------------------
S(M1 – M2)

Sample mean difference

t= ---------------------------
Estimated standard error
 Independent-Measures

(M1 – M2)
t= ------------
S (M1 – M2)
s 2p s2p
s(M1 – M2) = √ -----
n1 + -----
n2
Where s2p – Pooled or weighted variance

• The formula for the standard error simply

combines the error for the first sample mean and
the error of the second sample mean
 Independent-Measures
• The pooled variance is necessary when the
sample size of the two groups are not equal
• Computing for the pooled variance

SS1 + SS2
s2p = ----------------------
df1 + df2
 Summary of
• Important formulas

(Σ X) 2
SS = ΣX2 - ----------
n
SS1 + SS2
s2p = ----------------------
df1 + df2
s2 p s 2p
s(M1 – M2) = √ -----
n1 + -----
n2
(M – M )
1 2
t = ------------
S (M1 – M2)
 Sample Problem
Experiment on the effect of mental imagery on memory

A psychologist prepares 40 pairs of noun (i.e.: dog/door,

grass/bicycle, lamp/piano). Two groups of participants
are obtained (two separate samples). Participant in one
group are given the list for 5 minutes and instructed to
memorize the 40 noun pair. Participants in another group
receive the same list of words, but in addition to the
regular instructions, they are told to form a mental image
for each pair of nouns (imagine a dog outside the door).
Note that the two samples are the same expect that one
group is using mental image to help them learn the list
 Sample Problem
Later, each group is given a memory test in
which they are given the first word from each
pair and asked to recall the second word. The
psychologist record the number of words
correctly recalled for each individual
 Sample Problem
Data (Number of Words Recalled)
Group 1 (Images) X1 X12 Group 2 (No Images) X2 X22

18 24
19 23
23 16
29 17
30 29
31 13
29 17
26 20
21 15
24 26
ΣX1 = ΣX12 = ΣX2 = ΣX22 =
M1 = M2 =
n1 = n2 =
 Step 1
• State the Hypotheses, and select the alpha
level

H0: μ1 – μ2 = 0

H1: μ1 – μ2 ≠ 0

• Use α = 0.052 tail

 Step 2
• Determine degrees of freedom

df = df1 – df2 = (n1 -1) + (n2 – 1) = 9 + 9 = 18

With df of 18 and α = 0.052 tail Determine the

Critical value of
tcrit = ±2.101
 Step 3
• Compute for the t statistic

(Σ X) 2
SS = ΣX2 - ---------- SS1 + SS2
s2p = ----------------------
n df1 + df2

s 2p s 2p
s(M1 – M2) = √ -----
n1 + -----
n2 tobt =
(M1 – M2)
------------
S (M1 – M2)

tobt =
 Step 4
• Make a decision

• OmG! CR PaLA!
• OnLine CA Pa GA?
 Effect Size

Difference in means
Cohen’s d = ----------------------------
(pooled) Standard
deviation
 Assumptions Underlying the
Independent-Measures t Formula
1. The observations within each sample must
be independent
2. The two populations from which the samples
are selected must be normal
3. The two populations from which the samples
are selected must have equal variances.
T-TEST FOR TWO
RELATED SAMPLES
 Related Samples
• Repeated measures design
• Two sets of data are obtained form the same sample of
individuals.
• i.e.: before and after (treatment) measurements
• Testing the same sample under different conditions
• Match subjects – each individual in one sample is
matched with a subject in the other sample. The
matching is done so that the two individual are
equivalent (or nearly equivalent) with respect to a
specific variable that the researcher would like to
control
 t Statistic for Related Samples

• Structurally similar to other t statistics

• Based on difference scores rather than raw
scores (X values)
• Difference scores = D = X2 – X1

• H0 = μD = 0
• H1 = μD ≠ 0
 t Statistic for Related Samples

• Structurally similar to other t statistics

• Based on difference score rather than raw
scores (X values)
• Difference scores = D = X2 – X1

• H0 = μD = 0
• H1 = μD ≠ 0
 t Statistic for Related Samples

(Σ D) 2
SS = ΣD2 - ----------
N
SS
s2 = -------
df

s 2
sMD = √ ------
n
MD – μD
t = ------------
SMD
 Sample Problem
• A researcher in behavioral medicine believes that
stress often makes asthma symptoms worse for people
who suffer from this respiratory disorder. Because of
the suspected role of stress, the investigator decides to
examine the effects of relaxation training on the
severity of asthma symptoms. A sample of 5 patients is
selected for the study. During the week before the
treatment, the investigator records the severity of their
symptoms by measuring how many doses of
medication are needed for asthma attacks. The he
patients receive relaxation training. For the week
following training, the researcher once again records
the number of doses required by each patient.
 Sample Problem
Patient Week Week After D D2
Before Training
Training
A 9 4
B 4 1
C 5 5
D 4 0
E 5 1
ΣD = ΣD2 =
 Step 1
• State the Hypothesis, and select the alpha
level

H0: μD = 0 (There is no change in symptoms)

H1: μD ≠ 0 (There is a change)

The level of significance is set at α = 0.05 for a

two-tailed test
 Step 2
• Locates the critical region
• n=5
• df = n – 1 = 5 – 1 = 4
• From the t distribution table, the tcrit is ±
2.776
 Step 3
• Obtain difference scores = D = X2 – X1
• Compute for the Mean Difference (MD)
• Compute for the following:
(Σ D) 2 SS
SS = ΣD2 - ---------- s2 = -------
N df

• Note that the formula for SS uses D instead of

X 2 M –μ
s D D
t = ------------
sMD = √ ------
n SMD
 Step 4
• Make a decision

• OmG! CR PaLA!
• OnLine CA Pa GA?
 Effect Size

Mean difference (MD)

Cohen’s d = ------------------------------
Standard deviation