Unit – II

Transformers
What is a Transformer?

• A transformer is a static electrical machine which transfers electrical

energy from one circuit to another without changing the frequency.

• A transformer is a static electrical machine which raises or lowers

voltage or current at the same frequency.

• It works on the principle of MUTUAL INDUCTION.

Transformer
• It consists of two windings insulated from each other and wound on a
common core made up of a magnetic material.

• AC voltage is connected across one of the windings called primary

winding.

• Load is connected to the other winding called the secondary winding.

• In both windings, EMF is induced by electromagnetic induction.

Transformer
 Constructional details
• Main Components of a Transformer are,
 Magnetic core
 Primary & Secondary windings
 Insulation of windings
 Conservator tank & Explosion vent
 Bushings
 Buchholz relay
 Breather
 Cooling arrangements
 Magnetic Core
• Magnetic circuit consists of an iron
core.
• Core is made up of stacks of thin
laminations (0.35mm thickness) of Cold
Rolled Grain Oriented (CRGO) silicon
steel.
• These laminations are lightly insulated
with varnish.
• Two types of magnetic circuit are core
type and shell type.
Magnetic Core
Core type construction
• In the core type, the windings are wound around two legs of a
rectangular magnetic core.

• Windings surround the core & it has only one magnetic path.
Shell type construction
• In shell type, the windings are wound around the center leg of a
three-legged core

• Core surrounds the windings.

Windings

• A transformer has two windings namely primary and secondary.

• These windings consist of a series of turns called coils, wound around

the core.

• Transformer windings are made of solid or stranded copper or

aluminium strip conductors.
Conservator and Explosion Vent
• Conservator is used to provide adequate
space for the expansion of oil when
transformer is loaded or when ambient
temperature changes.

• Explosion Vent is used to discharge

excess pressure developed inside the
transformer during loading, to the
atmosphere.
 Breather
• It sucks the moisture from the air which is taken by transformer so that
dry air is taken by transformer.
 Bushings
• Transformers are connected to high voltage
lines.
• Extreme care should be taken to prevent
the conductors touching the transformer
tank.
• So the connections in and out of the
transformer are made by the use of
bushings.
• Bushings are normally porcelain insulators.
Buchholz Relay
• It is a safety device connected between main tank and conservator
tank.
• In case of slow developing faults, it sounds an alarm to alert the
operator.
• If serious fault occur in the transformer, it disconnects the
transformer to protect it.
Methods of Cooling of Transformers
• Air natural
• Air Blast
• Oil natural
• Oil blast
• Forced circulation of oil
• Oil and water cooled
• Forced oil and water cooled
Losses in a Transformer
• The power losses in a transformer are of two types, namely;
 Core or Iron losses
 Copper losses
Core or Iron losses (Pi)
• This loss consists of hysteresis and eddy current loss and occur in the
transformer core due to the alternating flux.
• These losses can be determined by open-circuit test.
16 f v watts
Hysteresis loss, Ph = K h Bmax
2
Eddy current loss, Pe = K e Bmax f 2 t 2 v watts
• Both the above losses depend on Bm and frequency which are
constant.
• Hence, core or iron losses are practically the same at all loads.
Copper losses (PC)
• These losses occur in both the primary and secondary windings due
to their ohmic resistance.
• These losses can be determined by short-circuit test.
𝑃𝐶 = 𝐼12 𝑅1 + 𝐼22 𝑅2 = 𝐼12 𝑅01 = 𝐼22 𝑅02
• Copper losses vary as the square of load current.
• Copper losses account for about 90% of the total losses.
 Summary
Core loss Copper loss or I2R loss

It is the Constant loss It is a variable loss

Does not change even as the Also called as I2R loss

load current changes Proportional to square of the load

Proportional to supply voltage current

and frequency Occurs in the winding resistances

It is dissipated as heat

Impedance
Ratio
Shifting
Impedances

• When transferring resistance or reactance from primary to secondary,

multiply it by K2.

• When transferring resistance or reactance from secondary to primary,

divide it by K2.
Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Simplified Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary Side
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary Side
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Secondary Side
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Secondary Side
Testing of Transformers
• The circuit constants, efficiency and voltage regulation of a
transformer can be determined by two simple tests.
(i) Open-circuit test
(ii) Short-circuit lest
Open Circuit Test
 This test is conducted to determine R0 & X0
 Rated voltage is applied on LV side & HV side is kept open.
 At no load, current taken by the transformer is 3-5% of full load
current. So I2R loss is negligible.
 Therefore power consumed by the transformer on no load is
considered as core loss.
Open Circuit Test
Data observed from the test
 Supply voltage = V0 volts
 No load current = I0 amps
 Iron losses = W0 watts
W0 = V0I0 CosФ0
CosФ0 = W0/(V0I0)
IW = I0 CosФ0
Im = I0 SinФ0
R0 = V1/IW
X0 = V1/Im
Short Circuit Test
 This test is conducted to determine R02 & X02
 LV side of the Tfr is short circuited & the test is conducted on HV side.
 A low voltage is applied on the HV side to circulate the rated current
on both the windings.
 Power drawn during this test is considered as copper loss.
Short Circuit Test
Data observed from the test
 Applied voltage = VSC volts
 Short circuit current = ISC amps
 Copper losses = WSC watts
WSC = ISC2R02

R02= WSC/ISC2

Z02=VSC/ISC

X02=[Z022-R022]1/2
Efficiency
• F.L. Iron loss = Pi ...from open-circuit test

• F.L. Cu loss = PC ...from short-circuit test

• Total losses = Pi + PC

• Full-load efficiency of the transformer at any p.f.

Full load VA × P. F
F. L. efficiency, ηfl =
Full load VA × P. F + Pi + PC
Efficiency
• At any load (X times full-load), the total losses will be
𝑃𝑇 = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑋 2 𝑃𝐶

(𝑋 × 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴 × 𝑃. 𝐹)
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑎𝑡 𝑋 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝜂𝑋 =
𝑋 × 𝐹𝑢𝑙𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑉𝐴 × 𝑃. 𝐹 + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑋 2 𝑃𝐶

• Note that iron loss remains the same at all loads.

Condition for Maximum Efficiency
𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2

If R02 is the total resistance of the transformer referred to secondary, then,

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐶𝑜𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠, 𝑃𝐶 = 𝐼22 . 𝑅02
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑖 + 𝑃𝐶

𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 =
𝑉2 𝐼2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2 + 𝑃𝑖 + 𝐼22 . 𝑅02

𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2
𝐸𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦, 𝜂 =
𝑃
𝑉2 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝛷2 + 𝑖 + 𝐼2 . 𝑅02
𝐼2
Condition for Maximum Efficiency
𝑑
𝑑𝑒𝑛𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 = 0
𝑑𝐼2

𝑑 Pi
V2 cos Φ2 + + I2 . R 02 = 0
𝑑𝐼2 I2

𝑃𝑖
0 − 2 + R 02 = 0
𝐼2
𝑃𝑖 = 𝐼22 R 02

• i.e, Iron loss = Copper loss

Condition for Maximum Efficiency
• Hence efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper
losses are equal to iron losses.

• From above equation, the load current I2 corresponding to maximum

efficiency is given by,

𝑃𝑖
𝐼2 =
R 02
Output kVA Corresponding to Maximum Efficiency
• PC = Copper losses at full-load kVA

• Pi = Iron losses

• X = Fraction of full-load kVA at which efficiency is maximum

• Total Cu losses = X2 PC

• For maximum efficiency, Pi = X2 PC

Pi
∴ X=
PC
Output kVA Corresponding to Maximum Efficiency

Output kVA corresponding to max. efficiency = 𝑋 × Full load kVA

Pi
Output kVA corresponding to max. efficiency = Full load kVA ×
PC

• It may be noted that the value of kVA, at which the efficiency is

maximum, is independent of p.f. of the load.
Voltage Regulation
• Change in secondary terminal voltage, when full load at a given
power factor and at rated voltage is thrown off, is expressed as a
percentage of rated terminal voltage.

• The change in secondary terminal voltage from no load to full load

expressed as a percentage of full load voltage.

𝑽𝟐 𝑵.𝑳 − 𝑽𝟐 𝑭.𝑳
% 𝑽𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝑹𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝟐 𝑭.𝑳
Voltage Regulation at Different Power factors

• Voltage regulation for lagging p.f at load X,

𝑿. 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓𝟐 + 𝑿𝟎𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓𝟐
% 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝟐
• Voltage regulation at leading p.f at load X,
𝑿. 𝑰𝟐 𝑹𝟎𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝝓𝟐 − 𝑿𝟎𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝓𝟐
% 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝟐
• Voltage regulation at Unity p.f at load X,
𝑿. 𝑰𝟐 . 𝑹𝟎𝟐
% 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒂𝒈𝒆 𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎%
𝑽𝟐
In a 25 kVA, 2000 V / 200 V transformer, the constant and
variable losses are 350 W and 400 W respectively. Calculate the
efficiency on unity power factor at full load and half the full
load.
Calculate the efficiency at half and full load of a 100 kVA
transformer for unity and 0.8 p.f. The copper loss is 1000 W at
full load and iron loss is 1000 W.
Obtain the equivalent circuit of a 200 / 400 V, 50 Hz, 1 phase
transformer from the following test data:
O.C. test: 200 V, 0.7 A, 70 W – on L.V side.
S.C. test: 15 V, 10 A, 85 W – on H.V side.
Calculate the secondary voltage when delivering 5 kW at 0.8 p.f
lagging, the primary voltage being 200 V.
 From OC Test From SC Test
P0 = V0 I0 cos ϕ0 2 R
Psc = Isc 02

P0 70 Psc 85
cos ϕ0 = = R 02 = 2 = 2 = 0.85 Ω
V0 I0 200 × 0.7 Isc 10
cos ϕ0 = 0.5
Vsc 15
sin ϕ0 = 0.866 Z02 = = = 1.5 Ω
Isc 10
Iw = I0 cos ϕ0 = 0.7 × 0.5 = 0.35𝐴
Im = I0 sin ϕ0 = 0.7 × 0.866 = 0.606𝐴 X02 = Z02 2 − R 02 2

V0 70 X02 = 1.52 − 0.852

R0 = = = 200 Ω
Iw 0.35
X02 = 1.235 Ω
V0 70
X0 = = = 115.5 Ω
Im 0.606
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary Side

400
𝐾= =2
200
0.85
R 01 = 2 = 0.212 Ω
2
1.235
X01 = 2
= 0.308 Ω
2
 Equivalent Circuit Referred to Secondary Side

400
𝐾= =2
200
𝑅0′ = 200 × 22 = 800 Ω
𝑋0′ = 115.5 × 22 = 462 Ω
• Load kVA corresponding to 5 kW is,
5000
= = 6250 𝑉𝐴
0.8
• Load current I2 while delivering 6250 VA is,
6250
= = 15.625 𝐴
400
• Total voltage drop in secondary when it carries 15.625 A is,
= 𝐼2 𝑅02 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜙2 + 𝑋02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜙2
= 15.625 0.85 × 0.8 + 1.235 × 0.6
= 22.20 𝑉
• Hence the secondary voltage is,
𝑉2 = 400 − 22.2 = 377.8 𝑉
All Day Efficiency
• The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer is defined as
the ratio of output power to the input power i.e.,
Output power
Commercial efficiency =
Input power

Primaries of distribution transformers are energized all the 24 hours in

a day but the secondary windings supply little or no load during the
major portion of the day.
All Day Efficiency
• Constant loss occurs during the whole day but copper loss occurs only
when the transformer is loaded.

• The performance of such transformers is judged on the basis of

energy consumption during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours).

• This is known as all-day or energy efficiency.

All Day Efficiency
• The ratio of output in kWh to the input in kWh of a transformer over
a 24-hour period is known as all-day efficiency i.e.,
𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠
𝜂𝑎𝑙𝑙−𝑑𝑎𝑦 =
𝑘𝑊ℎ 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑖𝑛 24 ℎ𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑠

• In the design of such transformers, efforts should be made to reduce

the iron losses which continuously occur during the whole day.
All Day Efficiency
• A 40kVA distribution transformer has iron loss of 500 W and full load
copper loss of 500 W. the transformer is supplying a lighting load. The
load cycle is as under: Full load for 4 hours, half load for 8 hours and
no load for 12 hours. Calculate the all day efficiency.
All Day Efficiency
• A transformer has its maximum efficiency of 0.98 at 15 kVA at UPF.
During the day it is loaded as follows:

Duration Load Power Factor

12 hours 2 kW at 0.5 p.f
6 hours 12 kW at 0.8 p.f
4 hours 18 kW at 0.9 p.f
2 hours No load

• Find the “All Day Efficiency”.

Sumpner’s Test
Polarity Test

• Similar polarity ends of two windings are those ends that acquire
positive and negative polarity of emf induced in them simultaneously.
Auto Transformer
• An autotransformer has a single winding on an iron core and a part of
winding is common to both the primary and secondary circuits.
Auto Transformer
• Primary and secondary windings are connected electrically as well as
magnetically.

• Therefore, power from the primary is transferred to the secondary

conductively as well as inductively (transformer action).

• The voltage transformation ratio K of an ideal autotransformer is,

𝐸1 𝑁1 𝑉1 𝐼2
= = = =𝐾
𝐸2 𝑁2 𝑉2 𝐼1
 Theory of Autotransformer
• Winding 1-3 - N1 turns - pri winding
• winding 2-3 - N2 turns - sec winding
• Input current is I1
• Output current is I2
• Portion 1-2 of the wdg has N1 - N2 turns and voltage across this portion
of the winding is V1 - V2.
• The current through the common portion of the winding is I2 - I1.
 Theory of Autotransformer
• The equivalent circuit of the autotransformer.
• From this equivalent circuit, we have,
V1 − V2 N1 − N2
=
V2 N2
N1 − N2 V2 = V1 − V2 N2
V2 N1 − V2 N2 = V1 N2 − V2 N2
V2 N1 = V1 N2
N2 V2
= =K
N1 V1
 Output of Autotransformer
• Output apparent power = V2 I2
Apparant power transferred inductively
I1
= V2 I2 − I1 = K. V1 − I1
𝐾
1
= K. V1 I1 −1
𝐾

1−𝐾
= K. V1 I1 = V1 I1 (1 − 𝐾)
𝐾
= 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 × (1 − 𝐾)
 Apparant power transferred conductively = Input − Input × 1 − 𝐾

= Input 1 − (1 − 𝐾) = 𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 × 𝐾

• Suppose the input power to an ideal autotransformer is 1000 W and its voltage

transformation ratio K = 0.25. Then,

Apparant power transferred inductively = Input × 1 − 𝐾 = 1000 × 1 − 0.25

= 750 𝑊

Apparant power transferred conductively = Input × 𝐾 = 1000 × 0.25 = 250 W

Saving of Copper in Auto Transformer

• For the same output and voltage transformation ratio, an autotransformer

requires less copper than an ordinary 2-winding transformer.

• Weight of Cu required in a winding is α current X turns

Saving of Copper in Auto Transformer
Two winding transformer
• Weight of Cu required α (I1N1 + I2N2)
Autotransformer
• Weight of Cu required in section 1-2 α I1 (N1 – N2)
• Weight of Cu required in section 2-3 α (I2 – I1) N2
• Total weight of Cu required α I1 (N1 – N2) + (I2 – I1) N2
Saving of Copper in Auto Transformer
Saving of Copper in Auto Transformer

 Thus if K = 0.1, the saving of Cu is only 10% but if K = 0.9, saving

of Cu is 90%.
 Therefore, saving of Cu is more when K is nearer to 1.
Advantages of Autotransformers

• An autotransformer requires less Cu than a two -winding transformer

of similar rating.
• Autotransformer operates at a higher efficiency than a two-winding
transformer of similar rating.
• An autotransformer has better voltage regulation than a two-winding
transformer of the same rating.
• An autotransformer has smaller size than a two-winding transformer
of the same rating.
Advantages of Autotransformers

• An autotransformer requires smaller exciting current than a two-

winding transformer of the same rating.
• These advantages decrease as the ratio of transformation increases.
So an autotransformer has advantages only for low values of
transformation ratio.
Disadvantages of Autotransformers

• There is a direct connection between the primary and secondary.

Therefore, the output is no longer isolated from the input.
• It is not safe for stepping down a high voltage to a low voltage.
• The short - circuit current is much larger than for the two-winding
transformer of the same rating.
• This reduces the effective resistance and reactance.
Applications of Autotransformers

• Autotransformers are used to compensate for voltage drops in

transmission and distribution lines. When used for this purpose, they
are known as booster transformers.
• Autotransformers are used for reducing the voltage supplied to a.c.
motors during the starting period.
• Autotransformers are used for continuous variable supply.
Three Phase Transformers
• Large scale generation of electric power is usually 3 phase at 13.2 kV
or higher.
• But transmission voltage is 110 kV, 132 kV and 400 kV.
• Generated voltage needs to be increased.
• Hence 3 phase transformers are used.
• 3 single phase transformers can be used to construct a 3 phase
transformer.
• But it occupies more space and 15% more costlier than using a single
unit.
Three Phase Transformers
Three Phase Transformer Connections
• Star / Star (Y – Y)
• Delta / Delta (Δ – Δ)
• Star / Delta(Y – Δ)
• Delta / Star (V – Y)
 Star / Star (Y/Y) Connection
• It is also called zero degree connection.
𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑝ℎ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ
3
• Hence number of turns / phase and the
amount of insulation required is minimum.
• This connection is economical for small
rating high voltage transformers.
• It works well for balanced load.
 Delta / Delta (Δ/Δ) Connection
• It is also called zero degree connection.
𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑝ℎ and 𝐼𝑝ℎ =
3
• Hence number of turns / phase required is
more.
• This connection is economical for large rating
low voltage transformers.
• This connection is satisfactory for both
balanced and unbalanced loads.
• But neutral unavailable.
 Star / Delta (Y/Δ) Connection
• On primary side,
𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑝ℎ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ
3
• On secondary side,
𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑝ℎ and 𝐼𝑝ℎ =
3
𝑉𝑃𝑆 𝑉𝐿𝑆
= =𝐾
𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝐿𝑃൘
3
𝑉𝐿𝑆 1
= 𝐾
𝑉𝐿𝑃 3
 Delta / Star (Δ /Y) Connection
• On primary side,
𝐼𝐿
𝑉𝐿 = 𝑉𝑝ℎ and 𝐼𝑝ℎ =
3
• On secondary side,
𝑉𝐿
𝑉𝑝ℎ = 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼𝐿 = 𝐼𝑝ℎ
3
𝑉𝐿𝑆
𝑉𝑃𝑆 ൘
3
= =𝐾
𝑉𝑃𝑃 𝑉𝐿𝑃

𝑉𝐿𝑆
= 3𝐾
𝑉𝐿𝑃
Parallel Operation of Transformers
• Two transformers are said to be connected in parallel when their
primary windings are connected to a common supply bus bar and
secondary windings are connected to a common load.
Necessary for Parallel Operation of Transformers

• For supplying a large load, it is uneconomical to have a single large

transformer.
• There is a scope for future expansion of a substation to supply a load
beyond the capacity of the transformer installed.
• Uninterruptible supply is possible even if one of the transformer fails
or if it is taken out for maintenance.
Conditions for satisfactory Parallel Operation
• Transformers should be properly connected with regard to their
polarities.
Conditions for satisfactory Parallel Operation
• The voltage ratings and voltage ratios of the transformers should be
identical.
Conditions for satisfactory Parallel Operation
• The impedances of the transformers should be equal.
• If this condition is not met, the transformers will not share the load
according to their kVA ratings.
• It can be corrected by inserting proper amount of resistance
Conditions for satisfactory Parallel Operation
• The reactance/resistance ratios of the transformers should be the
same in order to avoid circulating currents.
• The power factor of the load supplied by the transformers will not be
equal.
• One transformer will be operating with a higher and the other with a
lower power factor than that of the load.
Tap Changing Transformers
• Voltage variation in power system is a normal phenomenon due to
rapid growth of industries and distribution network.
• Therefore system voltage control is essential for:
 Adjustment of consumer’s terminal voltage within prescribed
limits.
 Control of real and reactive power flow in the network.
• Turns ratio of the transformer is varied for achieving tap changing.
Off Load Tap Changing
• It is required to de-energise the transformer before changing the tap.
On Load Tap Changing
• Tap changing is done while transformer is delivering
load.
• The operating efficiency of electrical system is
improved.
• It is fitted with almost all power transformers.