Mobile Devices and Systems

Handheld Pocket Computers

•Smartphone is one of the manifestations of handheld
computers.
•Handheld computers can also be used as Smartphone.
•Differ from smart phones and multimedia phones in that that
they can be programmed for customized applications
•Offer a variety of application and programming tools not
included in new generation mobile phones
•Unlike smart phones, which usually use the text-on-nine-keys
format, handheld computers have full text keypad or a touch
screen keypad.
• Stylus generally used to enter data into handheld devices such
as PDAs and palmtops.
• Some allow the user to write on the screen using a stylus and
incorporate special software for handwriting recognition
• Programmable pocket computers Include word processors
and spread sheet software as well as PIM software , QWERTY
keyboards or touch screens with stylus for data inputs
Differences between Pocket computers and Laptops
• Pocket PCs no CD drives and hard disks
• Use flash memory
• Allow the insertion of a memory stick
• Clock speeds of pocket computer processors are limited up to
200 MHz due to considerations about battery life
• Unlike laptops and notebooks, which use regular
microcomputer operating systems, pocket computers have
specially designed operating systems
• OS scaled to the requirements of the software, hardware, and
peripherals used in handheld computers
 GPRS
• General Packet Radio Service
• Step to efficiently transport high-speed data over the current
GSM and TDMA-based wireless network infrastructures
• Deployment of GPRS networks allows a variety of new
applications ranging from mobile e-commerce to mobile
corporate VPN access
• GPRS allows for data speeds of 14.4 KBps to 171.2 KBps,
which allow for comfortable Internet access
• Allows for short ‘bursty’ traffic, such as e-mail and web
browsing, as well as large volumes of data
• No dial-up modem connection is necessary
• Offers fast connection set-up mechanism to offer a
perception of being ‘always on’ or ‘always connected’
• Immediacy is one of the prime advantages of GPRS
 QoS in GPRS
• The Quality of Service requirements of typical mobile packet
data applications are very diverse.
eg. The QOS for real time multimedia content is different
from web browsing or email transfer.
• GPRS allows definition of QoS profiles using the parameters of
service precedence, reliability, delay and throughput
• Service precedence is the priority of a service in relation to
another service which can be either high, normal or low
• Reliability indicates the transmission characteristics required
by an application and guarantees certain maximum values for
the probability of loss, duplication, mis-sequencing and
corruption of packets
• Delay parameters define maximum values for the mean delay
and the 95-percentile delay. The delay is defined as the end-
to-end transfer time between two communicating mobile
stations or between a mobile station and the signaling
interface to an external packet data network.
• Throughput specifies the maximum/peak bit rate and the
mean bit rate
 GPRS Network Architecture
• GPRS uses the GSM architecture for voice
• To offer packet data services through GPRS, a new class of
network nodes called GPRS support nodes (GSN) are
introduced as an upgrade to the existing GSM network.
• GSNs are responsible for the delivery and routing of data
packets between the mobile stations and the external packet
data networks (PDN)
• Two main GSNs are Serving GSN (SGSN) and Gateway GSN
(GGSN)
 SGSN
• SGSN is at the same hierarchical level as the MSC and so,
whatever MSC does for voice, SGSN does for packet data
• SGSN’s tasks include packet switching, routing and transfer,
mobility management, logical link management,
authentication and charging functions
• SGSN processes registration of new mobile subscribers and
keeps a record of their location inside a given service area
• Location register of the SGSN stores location information (like
current cell, current VLR, etc.) and user profiles of all GPRS
users registered with this SGSN
• SGSN sends queries to HLR to obtain profile data of GPRS
subscribers
 GGSN
• GGSN acts as an interface between the GPRS backbone
network and the external packet data networks and functions
like a router in a LAN
• GGSN maintains routing information that is necessary to
tunnel Protocol Data Units (PDUs) to the SGSNs that service
particular mobile stations
• GGSNs convert the GPRS packets coming from the SGSN into
the appropriate packet data protocol (PDP) format for the
data networks like Internet or X.25
• GGSN stores the current SGSN address of the user and user’s
profile in its location register while performing authentication
and charging functions related to data transfer
GPRS System Architecture
 GPRS Network Enhancements
• Base Station System (BSS) needs enhancement to recognize
and send packet data and this includes BTS upgrade to allow
transportation of user data to the SGSN. BTS, too, needs to be
upgraded to support packet data transportation between BTS
and MS (mobile station).
• HLR needs enhancement to register GPRS user profiles and
respond to queries originating from GSNs regarding these
profiles.
• MS (mobile station) for GPRS is different from that of GSM.
• SMS Nodes : SMS-GMSCs( SMS Gateway MSC) and SMS-
IWMSCs (SMS Inter-Working MSC)are upgraded to support
SMS transmission via the SGSN
 Channel Coding
• Channel coding is used to protect the transmitted data
packets against errors
• Channel coding technique in GPRS is quite similar to the one
employed in conventional GSM
• Under very bad channel conditions, reliable coding scheme is
used where redundant bits are added to recover from burst
errors. In this scheme a data rate of 9.05 Kbps is achieved per
time slot.
• Under good channel conditions, no encoding scheme is used
resulting in a higher data rate of 21.4 Kbps per time slot. With
eight time slots, a maximum of 171.2 Kbps can be achieved.
Transmission Plane Protocol Architecture
 Signaling Plane
• Protocol architecture of the signaling plane comprises
protocols for control and support of the functions of the
transmission plane and includes GPRS attach and detach,
control of routing paths and allocation of network resources.
• Between SGSN and HLR as well as between SGSN and EIR, an
enhanced Mobile Application Part (MAP) is employed which is
a mobile network specific extension of the Signaling System
SS#7 used in GSM and transports the signaling information
related to location updates, routing information, user profiles
and handovers.
• MAP messages are exchanged over Transaction Capabilities
Application Part (TCAP) and Signaling Connection Control Part
(SCCP) while BSSGP( BSS GPRS Application Protocal) is an
enhancement of GSM’s BSSAP( Base Station System
application part)
 GPRS Backbone
• It includes the transmission plane between SGSN and GGSN.
• User data packets and signaling information within GPRS
networks are encapsulated using GPRS Tunneling Protocol
(GTP) which is also used in both intra-PLMN (between SGSN
and GGSN within one PLMN) and inter-PLMN (between SGSN
and GGSN of different PLMNs).
• GTP protocol tunnels the user data packets through GPRS
backbone by adding GPRS specific routing information in the
form of GTP packets which can carry data packets from both
IP and X.25 data networks.
• In essence, GPRS backbone has an IP/X.25-over-GTP-over-
UDP/TCP-over-IP transport architecture
 BSS-SGSN Interface
The BSS-SGSN interface is divided into four layers:
1. Sub-Network Dependent Convergence Protocol (SNDCP)
which transfers data packets between SGSN and MS,
multiplexes several connections of the network layer onto
one virtual logical connection of the underlying LLC layer and
does segmentation, compression-decompression of user
data.
2. Logical Link Control (LLC) is data link layer protocol for GPRS
which functions similar to Link Access Procedure-D (LAPD)
and assures the reliable transfer of user data across a
wireless network.
3. Base Station System GPRS Protocol (BSSGP) delivers routing
and QoS related information between BSS and SGSN.
4. Network Service layer manages the convergence sub-layer
that operates between BSSGP and Frame Relay Q.922 Core
by mapping BSSGP’s service requests to the appropriate
Frame Relay services
 Air Interface
• Air interface of GPRS comprises data link layer and physical
layer.
• Data link layer between MS and BSS is divided into three
sublayers: the logical link control (LLC) layer, the radio link
control (RLC) layer and the medium access control (MAC)
layer.
• Physical layer between MS and BSS is divided into two
sublayers: the physical link layer (PLL) and the physical RF
layer (RFL).
 LLC Layer
• Logical Link Control (LLC) layer provides a reliable logical link
between an MS and its assigned SGSN as its functionality is
based on HDLC (High Level Data Link Control) protocol and
includes sequence control, in-order delivery, flow control,
detection of transmission errors and retransmissions.
• Encryption is used.
• Variable frame lengths are possible and both acknowledged
and unacknowledged data transmission modes are supported
 RLC Layer
• Radio Link Control (RLC) layer establishes a reliable link
between MS and BSS.
• It also does segmentation and reassembly of LLC frames into
RLC data blocks and ARQ of uncorrectable data.
MAC Layer
• Medium Access Control (MAC) layer controls the access
attempts of an MS on the radio channel shared by several
MSs by employing algorithms for contention resolution, multi-
user multiplexing on a packet data traffic channel (PDTCH)
and scheduling and prioritizing based on the negotiated QoS.
 PL Layer
• Physical Link Layer (PLL) provides services for information
transfer over a physical channel between the MS and the
network.
• Its functions include data unit framing, data coding and
detection and correction of physical medium transmission
errors.
• Physical Link Layer uses the services of the Physical RF Layer
 PRF Layer
• Physical RF Layer (RFL) performs the modulation of the
physical waveforms based on the sequence of bits received
from the Physical Link Layer above.
• It also demodulates received wave forms into a sequence of
bits that are transferred to the Physical Link layer for
interpretation.
 Radio Resource Management
• On the radio interface, GPRS uses a combination of FDMA and
TDMA.
• A series of logical channels are defined to perform functions
like signaling, broadcast of general system information,
synchronization, channel assignment, paging or payload
transport.
• Such channels can be divided into two categories: traffic
channels and signaling channels.
• GPRS traffic channels are allocated when data packets are
sent or received and they are released after the transmission
of data.
• GPRS allows a single mobile station to use multiple time slots
of the same TDMA frame for data transmission which is
known as multi-slot operation and uses a very flexible channel
allocation
• Uplink and downlink channels are allocated separately which
efficiently supports asymmetric data traffic like Internet.
• Physical channels to transport user data packet are called
Physical Data Traffic Channel (PDTCH) which are taken from a
common pool of all channels available in a cell.
• Mapping of physical channels to either packet switched data
(in GPRS mode) or circuit switched data (in GSM mode)
services are performed dynamically depending on demand.
• Demand-wise, the number of channels allocated for GPRS
can be changed. For example, physical channels not currently
in use by GSM can be allocated as PDTCHs to increase the
bandwidth of a GPRS connection.
 Security
• GPRS security is similar to the existing GSM security.
• SGSN performs authentication and cipher setting procedures
based on the same algorithms, keys and other criteria of GSM.
• GPRS uses a ciphering algorithm optimized for packet data
transmission
 Attachment and Detachment in GPRS
• MS registers itself with SGSN of GPRS network through a GPRS
attach which establishes a logical link between the MS and
the SGSN.
• Network checks if MS is authorized to use the services; if so,
it copies the user profile from HLR to SGSN and assigns a
Packet Temporary Mobile Subscriber Identity (P-TMSI) to the
MS.
• To exchange data packets with external PDNs after a
successful GPRS attach, an MS must apply for an address
which is called PDP (Packet Data Protocol) address.
• For each session, a PDP context is created which contains PDP
type (e.g. IPv4), PDP address assigned to the mobile station
(e.g. 129.187.222.10), requested QoS and address of the
GGSN that will function as an access point to the PDN
• Such a context is stored in MS, SGSN and GGSN while with an
active PDP context, the MS is ‘visible’ to the external PDN.
• A user may have several simultaneous PDP contexts active at
a given time and user data is transferred transparently
between MS and external data networks trough GTP
encapsulation and tunneling.
• Allocation of the PDP address can be static or dynamic.
• In case of static address, the network operator permanently
assigns a PDP address to the user while in other case, a PDP
address is assigned to the user upon the activation of a PDP
context.
 PDP Context Activation
• Using the message ‘activate PDP context request’, MS informs
the SGSN about the requested PDP context and if request is
for dynamic PDP address assignment, the parameter PDP
address will be left empty.
• After necessary security steps, if authentication is successful,
SGSN will send a ‘create PDP context request’ message to the
GGSN, the result of which is a confirmation message ‘create
PDP context response’ from the GGSN to the SGSN, which
contains the PDP address.
• SGSN updates its PDP context table and confirms the
activation of the new PDP context to the MS.
• Disconnection from the GPRS network is called GPRS detach
in which all the resources are released
PDP Context Activation
 Mobility Management
• Mobility Management functions are used to track its location
within each PLMN(public land mobile network) in which
SGSNs(Serving GSN) communicate with each other to update
the MS’s location in the relevant registers.
• Profiles of MSs are preserved in VLRs that are accessible to
SGSNs via the local MSC.
• A logical link is established and maintained between the MS
and the SGSN at each PLMN.
• At the end of transmission or when a mobile station moves
out of area of a specific SGSN, the logical link is released and
the resources associated with it can be reallocated
 Routing
• Routing is the process of how packets are routed in GPRS.
• Here, the example assumes two intra-PLMN backbone
networks of different PLMNs. Intra-PLMN backbone networks
connect GSNs of the same PLMN or the same network
operator.
Eg. Airtel GSN in Bangalore connects airtel GSN in Delhi through
private data network
• These intra-PLMN networks are connected with an inter-
PLMN backbone while an inter-PLMN backbone network
connects GSNs of different PLMNs and operators. However, a
roaming agreement is necessary between two GPRS network
providers.
• Gateways between PLMNs and external inter-PLMN
backbone are called border gateways which perform security
functions to protect the private intra-PLMN backbones against
malicious attacks.
Routing
 GPRS Handsets
• GPRS terminal can be one of the three classes: A, B or C.
• Class A terminal supports GPRS data and other GSM services
such as SMS and voice simultaneously. This includes
simultaneous attach, activation, monitoring and traffic. As
such, a class A terminal can make or receive calls on two
services simultaneously while supporting SMS.
• Class B terminal can monitor GSM and GPRS channels
simultaneously, but can support only one of these services at
any time. Therefore, a Class B terminal can support
simultaneous attach, activation, and monitoring but not
simultaneous traffic. Users can make or receive calls on either
a packet or a switched call type sequentially but not
simultaneously. SMS is supported in class B terminals.
• Class C terminal supports only non-simultaneous attach. The
user must select which service to connect to. Therefore, a
class C terminal can make or receive calls from only the
manually selected network service (and so, the service that is
not selected is not reachable). The GPRS specifications state
that support of SMS is optional for class C terminals.
• Each handset will have a unique form factor. So, terminals will
be available in the standard form factor with a numeric
keypad and a relatively small display. Other types of phones
with different form factors, color displays, cameras are
common apart from the latest smart phones.
 Bearers in GPRS
• Bearer services of GPRS offer end-to-end packet switched
data transfer.
• GPRS supports two different kinds of data transport services:
point-to-point (PTP) services and point-to-multipoint (PTM)
services.
• GPRS continues to support SMS as a bearer.
• Wireless Application Protocol is a data bearer service over
HTTP protocol, supported by GPRS.
• Multimedia Messaging Service, too, is supported by GPRS
 Applications of GPRS
• Chat
• Multimedia Services
• Virtual Private Network
• Personal Information Management
• Job Sheet Dispatch
• Unified Messaging
• Vehicle Positioning
• Location based services and Telematics
 Limitations of GPRS
• Limited cell capacity for all users
• Lower access speed in reality
• No support of GPRS Mobile Terminate Connection for a
mobile server
 Billing and Tariffing
Minimum charging information that must be collected are:
• Destination and source addresses, Usage of radio interface
• Usage of external Packet Data Networks
• Usage of the packet data protocol addresses
• Usage of general GPRS resources and location of the Mobile
Station
• Various business models exist for charging customers as billing
of services can be based on the transmitted data volume, the
type of service, the chosen QoS profile, etc.
• GPRS call records are generated in the GPRS Service Nodes.
• Packet counts are passed to a Charging Gateway that
generates Call Detail Records that are sent to the billing
system.
 Mobile IP
• Mobile IP was designed to allow mobile device users to move
from one network to another .
– Enables hosts to stay connected to the Internet regardless
of their location.
– Enables hosts to be tracked without needing to change
their IP address.
– Requires no changes to software of non-mobile
hosts/routers.
– Has no geographical limitations.
– Supports security.
• Standardized by IETF .
• ‘Mobile IP’ signifies that, while a user is connected to
applications across the Internet and the user’s point of
attachment changes dynamically, all connections are
maintained despite the change in underlying network
properties
• Similar to the handoff/roaming situation in cellular network
• Mobile IP allows the mobile node to use two IP addresses
called home address and care of address
• The home address is static and known to everybody as the
identity of the host
• The care of address changes at each new point of attachment
and can be thought of as the mobile node’s location specific
address
 Mobile IP Entities
Mobile Node (MN)
– The entity that may change its point of attachment from
network to network in the Internet.
• Two addresses:-
 Home address – IP address assigned to the device
within its home network .
 Care-of address (COA)– IP address of the device when it is
operating in a foreign network.
 Identifies Mobile Node’s current location.
 Sent by Foreign Agent to Home Agent when MN
attaches.
 Usually the IP address of the Foreign Agent.
• Home Network – The network within which the device
receives its Home address
• Home Agent (HA)
 Stores information about Mobile nodes whose permanent
Home address is in Home Agent’s Network.
 Located on home network of Mobile Node.
 Does mobility binding of MN’s IP with its COA
 Forwards packets to network when MN is away
 Does this through encapsulation
• Foreign network – Network in which the Mobile Node is away
from its Home network.
• Foreign Agent (FA)
 Stores information about mobile nodes visiting its
network.
 If MN is away from HA then it uses a FA to send/receive
data to/from HA
 Advertises Care-of addresses which are used by Mobile IP.
 Decapsulates messages for delivery to MN
• Binding – Association of Home address with Care-of address.
Working of Mobile IP
Let’s take the case of mobile node (A) and another host (server
X).
The following steps take place:
• Server X wants to transmit an IP datagram to node A. The
home address of A is advertised and known to X. X does not
know whether A is in the home network or somewhere else.
Therefore, X sends the packet to A with A’s home address as
the destination IP address in the IP header. The IP datagram is
routed to A’s home network.
• At the A’s home network, the incoming IP datagram is
intercepted by the home agent. The home agent discovers
that A is in a foreign network. A care of address has been
allocated to A by this foreign network and available with the
home agent. The home agent encapsulates the entire
datagram inside a new IP datagram, with A’s care of address in
the IP header. This new datagram with the care of address as
the destination address is retransmitted by the home agent.
• At the foreign network, the incoming IP datagram is
intercepted by the foreign agent. The foreign agent is the
counterpart of the home agent in the foreign network. The
foreign agent strips off the outer IP header, and delivers the
original datagram to A.
• A intends to respond to this message and sends traffic to X. In
this example, X is not mobile; therefore X has a fixed IP
address. For routing A’s IP datagram to X, each datagram is
sent to some router in the foreign network. Typically, this
router is the foreign agent. A uses X’s IP static address as the
destination address in the IP header.
• The IP datagram from A to X travels directly across the
network, using X’s IP address as the destination address.
 Mobile IP Operations
• Discovery - A mobile node uses a discovery procedure to
identify prospective home agents and foreign agents.
• Registration - A mobile node uses a registration procedure to
inform its home agent of its care-of address.
• Tunneling - Tunneling procedure is used to forward IP
datagrams from a home address to a care of address
Discovery:
– Extension of ICMP Router Advertisement
– Home agents and foreign agents broadcast agent
advertisements at regular intervals
– Mobile IP uses control messages that are sent to and from
UDP port 334.
Agent advertisement
Allows for the detection of mobility agents
Lists one or more available care-of addresses
Informs the mobile node about special features
Mobile node selects its care-of address
Mobile node checks whether the agent is a home agent
or foreign agent
– MNs can solicit for agents if they have not heard an agent
advertisement in awhile or use some other mechanism to
obtain a COA or temp. IP address (e.g. DHCP).
– MNs know they are home when they recognize their HA
Using Discovery Process
• The mobile node determines whether it is in a foreign
network
• For the purpose of discovery, a router or an agent periodically
issues a router advertisement ICMP message
• The mobile node on receiving this advertisement packet
compares the network portion of the router IP address with
the network portion of its own IP address allocated by the
home network(home address)
• If these network portions do not match, then the module
node knows that it is in a foreign network.
Registration:
The registration process involves the following steps
• The mobile node requests for forwarding service from the
foreign network by sending a registration request to the
foreign agent.
• The foreign agent relays this registration request to the home
agent of that mobile node
• The home agent either accepts or rejects the request and
sends a registration reply to the foreign agent
• The foreign agent relays this reply to the mobile node.
 Tables maintained on routers
 Mobility Binding Table
 Maintained on HA of MN
 Maps MN’s home address with its
current COA

 Visitor List
 Maintained on FA
 Maps MN’s home address
with HA address
Mobile IP Tunneling
• In the mobile IP, an IP- within- IP encapsulation mechanism is
used.
• Using IP- within- IP, the home agent adds a new IP header
called tunnel header
• The new tunnel header uses the mobile node’s care of
address(COA) as the tunnel destination IP address and the
tunnel source IP address is the home agent’s IP address
• In IP- within- IP, the entire original IP header is preserved as
the first part of the pay load of the tunnel header
• The foreign agent after receiving the packet, drops the tunnel
header and delivers the rest to the mobile node.
• When a mobile node is roaming in a foreign network, the
home agent must be able to intercept all IP datagram packets
sent to the mobile node so that these datagrams can be
forwarded via tunneling.
 Problems with Mobile IP
• Security:
– authentication with FA problematic, for the FA typically
belongs to another organization
– no protocol for key management and key distribution has
been standardized in the Internet
– patent and export restrictions
• Firewalls:
– typically mobile IP cannot be used together with firewalls,
special set-ups are needed (such as reverse tunneling)
• QoS
– tunneling makes it hard to give a flow of packets a special
treatment needed for the QoS
Security Requirements
– Integrity
any changes to data between sender and receiver can be
detected by the receiver
– Authentication
sender address is really the address of the sender and all
data received is really data sent by this sender
– Confidentiality
only sender and receiver can read the data
– Non-Repudiation
sender cannot deny sending of data
– Traffic Analysis
creation of traffic and user profiles not be possible
– Replay Protection
receivers can detect replay of messages
 Cellular IP
• The primary design goal for mobile IP protocols is to allow a
host to change its point of access during data transfer without
being disconnected or needing to be reconfigured.
• A change of access point while connectivity is maintained is
called handoff.
• To manage mobility, two tier addressing scheme is used.One
address for a fixed location and other one is for dynamic
location which changes as the user moves
• In mobile IP, a mobile host is associated with two IP
addresses: a fixed home address that serves as host identifier
and a care- of -address that reflects the current point of
attachment.
• The mobile IP architecture comprises of three functions
1. A database that contains the most up to date mapping
between home address and care- of- address
2. The translation of host identifier to the actual destination
address
3. Ensuring that routing of packets is proper
• Whenever the mobile host moves to a new subnet managed
by a different foreign agent, the dynamic care- of- address
will change.
• The changed care- of- address needs to be communicated to
the home agent.
• This process works for slowly moving hosts.
• For a high speed mobile host, the rate of update of addresses
needs to match with rate of change of addresses. Otherwise
packets will be forwarded to wrong(old) address.
• Mobile IP fails to update the addresses properly for high
speed mobility
• Cellular IP , a new host mobility protocol has been designed
to address this issue.
• In Cellular IP, None of the nodes know the exact location of a
mobile host.
• Packets addressed to a mobile host are routed to its current
base station on a hop-by-hop basis where each node only
needs to know on which of its outgoing ports to forward
packets.
• This limited routing information (referred as mapping) is local
to the node and does not assume that nodes have any
knowledge of the wireless network topology.
• Mappings are created and updated based on the packets
transmitted by mobile hosts.
• Cellular IP Uses two parallel structures of mappings through
Paging Caches (PC) and Routing Caches (RC)
• PCs maintain mappings for stationary and idle (not in data
communication state) hosts
• RC maintains mappings for mobile hosts
• Mapping entries in PC have a large timeout interval, in the
order of seconds or minutes. RCs maintain mappings for
mobile hosts currently receiving data or expecting to receive
data
 Mobile IP Vs Cellular IP
• Location management
– Mobile IP: Care-of-address
– Cellular IP: paging update packet
• Routing
– Mobile IP: registration
– Cellular IP: routing cache
• Handoff
– Mobile IP: encapsulation
– Cellular IP: routing cache
 Internet Protocol version 6 (IPV6)
• Internet offers access to information sources worldwide
• We access internet through increasing variety of wireless
devices offering internet connectivity such as laptops, PDAs,
hand held devices, palmtops and digital cellular phones.
• The explosion in the number of devices connected to the
internet combined with projections for the future, made
scientists think seriously whether the 32 bit address space of
TCP/IP is sufficient.
• IPV6 , the successor of IPV4 protocol expands the available
address space.
 Problems with IPV4
1.Insuffieciency
- Only four bytes( 32 bit address)
• Maximum nodes ~ 4.3 billion
• Much less than the human population (6.799
billion)
- Not enough for growing number of users
- Will be exhausted in near future

2. Very high routing overhead

– lot of memory needed for routing table
– lot of bandwidth to pass routing information
– lot of processing needed to compute routes
3. Lack of quality-of-service support.
– Problem for multimedia services.
4. No support for security at IP layer.
5. Mobility support is limited.
 IP Criteria
• Atleast 109 networks, 1012 end-systems
• Datagram service (best effort delivery)
• Independent of physical layer technologies
• Robust (routing) in presence of failures
• Flexible topology (e.g., dual-homed nets)
• Better routing structures (e.g., aggregation)
• High performance (fast switching)
• Support for multicasting
• Support for mobile nodes
• Support for quality-of-service
• Provide security at IP layer
• Extensible
• Auto-configuration (plug-and--play)
• Straight-forward transition plan from IPv4
• Minimal changes to upper layer protocols
 IPV6
• Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF) has produced a
comprehensive set of specifications (RFC 1287, 1752,
1886, 1971, 1993, 2292, 2373, 2460, 2473, etc.) that
define the next-generation IP protocol originally known
as ‘IPNg’ now renamed as IPV6
• Uses 128 bit addresses for each packet creating a
virtually infinite number of IP addresses (approximately
3.4*10**38 IP addresses) as opposed to 3758096384
IPv4 addresses(2**31 in A class)
 Address Format

• An IPv6 address is represented as 8 groups of 4 hexadecimal

digits, each group representing 16 bits (2 octets). The groups
are separated by colons(:).
E.g.- 2001:0db8.85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334
 IPv6 address notation
• Three possible notation types
• Depends on content of address you need represent
1.Standard notation
- Represent the address as eight 16-bit hexadecimal words
separated by ``:'' (colons)
- E.g : FEDC:BA98:0332:0000:CF8A:000C:2154:7313 or
FEDC:BA98:332:0:CF8A:C:2154:7313.
2.Compressed notation
- Multiple fields of zeros
- Represent a single contiguous group of zero fields within an
IPv6 address
- Uses a double colon``::‘’
- E.g.: 1762:0:0:0:0:B03:1:AF18 FF01:0:0:0:CA:0:0:2
0:0:0:0:0:0:0:1:0:0:0:0:0:0:0 can be represented as
1762::B03:1:AF18 FF01::CA:0:0:2 ::1 ::
• Mixed notation
– For IPv4 addresses encapsulated in IPv6 addresses
– Represented using the original IPv4 ``.'' notation
• 0:0:0:0:0:0:127.32.67.15
• 0:0:0:0:0:FFFF:127.32.67.15
– Possible to use the compressed notation
• ::127.32.67.15
• ::FFFF:127.32.67.15
• In IPV6 , There are global addresses and local addresses
• Global addresses are used for routing of global Internet
• Link local addresses are available within a subnet
• IPv6 uses hierarchical addressing with three level of
addresses
• Includes a Public Topology (the 48 bit external routing prefix)
• Site Topology (typically a 16 bit subnet number)
• Interface Identifier (typically an automatically generated 64
bit number unique on the local LAN segment)
 Types of addressing
 unicast
 communicate with specified 1 computer
 multicast
 Communicate with group of computers
 anycast
 send group address that can be received by multiple computers, but
received by 1 computer

g
g
s d s g s g

g g
unicast
 IPv6 Security
• One of the biggest differences between IPV6 and IPV4 is that
all IPV6 nodes are expected to implement strong
authentication and encryption features to improve internet
security.
• IPV6 Comes native with a security protocol called IP Security
(IPSec)
• IPSec protocol is a standards-based method of providing
privacy, integrity and authenticity to information transferred
across IP networks
 Features of IPSec
• Diffie-Hellman key exchange mechanism for deriving key
between peers on a public network
• Public key cryptography to guarantee the identity of the two
parties and avoid man-in-the-middle attacks
• Bulk encryption algorithms, such as 3DES, for encrypting the
data
• Keyed hash algorithms, such as HMAC, combined with
traditional hash algorithms such as MD5 or SHA for providing
packet authentication
• Digital certificates signed by a certificate authority to act as
digital ID cards
• IPSec provides IP network layer encryption
 Differences between IPV4 and IPV6

S. No. IPv4 IPv6

1. Addresses are 32 bits (4 Addresses are 128
bytes) long. bits (416 bytes)
long.
2. Both routers & sending host Routers don’t
fragment the packets. fragment the
packets but
sending host
fragment the
packets.
3. Header includes a Header doesn’t
checksum. includes a
checksum.
4 Address Space is Larger address
small(2^32) space(2^128)
S No IPV4 IPV6
5 Classes of addressing Classes of addressing are
are A, B, C, D, E. unicast, anycast, multicast.
6 Configure either Doesn’t require manual
manually or through configuration.
DHCP(Dynamic Host
Configuration
Protocol )
7 IPv4 address uses the IPv6 address are
dot-decimal notation. represented in a
hexadecimal, colon-
separated notation.
8 Not suitable for IPv6 is better suited to
mobile networks. mobile networks.
 Migrating from IPv4 to IPv6
The tasks involved in migrating from IPV4 to IPV6
• Migration of the network components to be able to support
IPv6 packets. Using IP tunneling, IPv6 packets can propagate
over an IPv4 envelope. Existing routers can support IP
tunneling.
• Migration of the computing nodes in the network. This will
need the operating system upgrades so that they support IPv6
along with IPv4. Upgraded systems will have both IPv4 and
IPv6 stacks.
• Migration of networking applications in both client and
server systems. This requires porting of the applications from
IPv4 to IPv6 environment.
 Interconnecting IPv6 networks
• Tunneling is one of the key deployment strategies for both
service providers as well as enterprises during the period of
IPv4 and IPv6 coexistence.
• Tunneling service providers can offer an end-to-end IPv6
service without major upgrades to the infrastructure and
without impacting current IPv4 services
A variety of tunnel mechanisms are available. They include
• Manually created tunnels such as IPv6 manually configured
tunnels (RFC 2893)
• IPv6 over IPv4 tunnels
• Semiautomatic tunnel mechanisms such as that employed by
tunnel broker services
• Fully automatic tunnel mechanisms such as IPv4 compatible
 Mobile IP with IPv6
• IPv6 with hierarchical addressing scheme can manage IP
mobility much efficiently.
• IPv6 also attempts to simplify the process of renumbering
which could be critical to the future routing of the Internet
traffic.
• Mobility Support in IPv6, as proposed by the Mobile IP
working group, follows the design for Mobile IPv4. It retains
the ideas of a home network, home agent and the use of
encapsulation to deliver packets from the home network to
the mobile node’s current point of attachment.
• While discovery of a care of address is still required, a mobile
node can configure its a care of address by using Stateless
Address Auto-configuration and Neighbor Discovery. Thus,
foreign agents are not required to support mobility in IPv6
Advantages and Disadvantages of Internet Protocol Version 6:

Advantages:
•
Provides more address space
• More powerful internet (128bit versus IPv4's current 32 bit)
• Address allocation is done by the device itself
• Support for security using (IPsec) Internet Protocol Security
Disadvantages:
•
It will be much harder to remember IP addresses (compared to the
addresses now)
• Creating a smooth transition from IPv4 to IPv6
• IPv6 is not available to machines that run IPv4
• Time to convert over to IPv6
 VOIP
• Technology to enable voice communication over the IP
network became known as Voice over Internet Protocol or
VoIP, in short.
• Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) is a technology that
enables one to make and receive phone calls through
the Internet instead of using the traditional analog
PSTN (Public Switched Telephone Network) lines
• Now more and more communication is done in digital format
and transported via data networks such as internet.
• As data traffic is much faster than telephone traffic, so we
prefer to send voice over data networks.
• VoIP is packetization and transport of classic public switched
telephone system audio over an IP network.
• It allows 2-way voice transmission over broadband
connection.
• It is also called IP telephony, internet telephony, voice over
broadband, broadband telephony.
VoIP Diagram
 PSTN vs. INTERNET
PSTN
• Voice network use circuit switching.
• Dedicated path between calling and called party.
• Bandwidth reserved in advance.
• Cost is based on distance and time.
INTERNET
• Data network use packet switching.
• No dedicated path between sender and receiver.
• It acquires and releases bandwidth, as it needed.
• Cost is not based on distance and time.
 Working
Three steps are involved
1. Compression – voice is compressed typically with one of the
following codecs, G7.11 64k, G7.29AB 8k, G723.1 6.3k
2. Encapsulation – the digitized voice is wrapped in an IP
packet
3. Routing – the voice packet is routed through the network to
its final destination
 A Basic IP Telephone System

• The simplest IP telephone system uses two basic components:

- IP telephone: end device allowing humans to place and receive calls.

- Media Gateway Controller: providing overall control and coordination
between IP phones; allowing a caller to locate a callee (e.g. call
forwarding)
• IP telephone system needs to interoperate with PSTN or
another IP telephone system.

• Two additional components needed for such interconnection:

– Media Gateway
– Signaling Gateway
• Media gateway: translates audio between IP network and
PSTN.
• Signaling Gateway: translates signaling operations.
 Signaling Protocols
Today, there are two sets of standards for VoIP switching, media,
and gateways. These are
1. H.323 from International Telecommunications Union (ITU)
2. Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) from Internet Engineering
task Force (IETF).
 H.323
H.323, defined by ITU, defines four elements that comprising a
signaling system:
1.Terminal: IP phone
2. Gateway: used to interconnect IP telephone system with
PSTN, handling both signaling and media translation.
 The purpose of the gateway is to do the signal and media
translation from IP to circuit switch network and vice versa.
This includes translation between transmission formats,
translation between audio and video codecs, call setup and
call clearing on both the IP side and the circuit-switched
network side.
3. Gatekeeper: provides location and signaling functions;
coordinates operation of Gateway
 A gatekeeper acts as the central point of control for all calls
within its zone for all registered endpoints. A gatekeeper is
not mandatory in an H.323 system. However, if a gatekeeper
is present, terminals must use the services offered by
gatekeepers. Gatekeepers perform functions like address
translation and bandwidth management.
For example, if a network has a threshold for the number of
simultaneous conferences on the LAN, the gatekeeper can refuse
to make any more connections once the threshold is reached.
4. Multipoint Control Unit: provides services such as multipoint
conferencing
 An MCU consists of a Multipoint Controller (MC) and a
Multipoint Processor (MP).
 The MC handles H.245 negotiations between all terminals to
determine common capabilities for audio and video
processing. An MCU optionally may have one or more MPs to
deal with the media streams.
 MP mixes, switches, and processes audio, video, and/or data
bits.
Architecture
 SIP
• SIP: Session Initiation Protocol. Defined by IETF.
• The Session Initiation Protocol (SIP) is a signaling protocol for
telephone calls over IP. Unlike the H.323, SIP is designed
specifically for the Internet.
• SIP defines interfaces for establishing, modifying and
terminating sessions with one or more participants in the VoIP
environment. It facilitates development of telephony
application. These facilities also enable personal mobility of
users
The conversation can be IP-to-IP, PSTN-to-IP, IP-to-PSTN.

In a SIP environment along with the endpoint devices, five

entities are required. These are
1. Proxy server
2. Registration server
3. Redirect server
4. Location server
5. Gateways
• the end-user device can be either an IP phone or a computer
in an IP network
 Proxy Server
• SIP proxies are elements that route SIP requests to user agent
servers (UAS) and SIP responses to user agent clients (UAC). A
request may traverse several proxies on its way to a UAS. Each
will make routing decisions, modifying the request before
forwarding it to the next element. Responses will route
through the same set of proxies traversed by the request in
the reverse order.
• In the SIP context, UAC is the endpoint initiating a call and
UAS is the endpoint receiving the call.
• SIP proxies function similar to routers and make routing
decisions, modifying the request before forwarding it to the
next element.
• SIP standard make provision for proxies to perform actions
such as validate requests, authenticate users, resolve
addresses, fork requests, cancel pending calls, etc.
 Registration Server
• The Registration server in a VoIP network can be defined as
the server maintaining the whereabouts of a domain. It
accepts requests from nodes in the VoIP network. It places
the information it receives as a part of those requests into the
location service for the domain it handles.
• requests are generated by clients in order to create or remove
a mapping between their externally known SIP address and
the IP address they wish to be contacted at. It uses the
location service in order to store and retrieve location
information. The location service may run on a remote
machine.
 Redirect Server
• The Redirect server does similar functions as in case of call
forwarding in a PSTN or cellular network. A redirect server
receives SIP requests and responds with redirection
responses. This enables the proxy to contact an alternate set
of SIP addresses.
• The alternate addresses are returned as contact headers in
the response SIP message.
Location servers
• stores information about user’s location or IP address
SIP in VoIP
H.323 and SIP
H.323 and SIP
ADVANTAGES:
• Cheaper call rates
• Simplification
• High efficiency
• Better Voice Quality Using Broadband Codecs
• Adding new features and applications over time is easy.
• Integration of voice, data, fax, video is possible.
LIMITATIONS:
• Packet Delay
• Packet Loss (no guarantee of delivering packets)
• Jitter (variable delay)
 WLL
• WLL provides two-way communication services to near-stationary
users within a small service area. WLL is intended to replace its
wireline counterpart (wireline local loop).
• In telephony, loop is defined as the circuit connecting a subscriber’s
station (e.g., telephone set) with the line terminating equipment in
a central office
• The cost of the loop tends to be dominated by the residence side .
This statement is particularly true for rural areas.
• installations use fiber optics to connect residential neighborhoods
or business campuses to the central office and statistical
multiplexers to concentrate traffic. However, the last few hundred
meters of wiring from a residence to the statistical multiplexer, the
local loop, is always dedicated.
• WLL offers the following advantages over wireline local loop:
 Ease of installation and deployment
 Concentration of resources
 WLL technology has been considered because the radio
systems can be rapidly developed, easily extended, and are
distant insensitive.
 WLL eliminates the wires, poles and ducts essential for a
wired network. In other words, the WLL approach significantly
speeds the installation process
 Wireless Local Loop Architecture

The architecture(TR-45 model) consists of three major

components:
1. The wireless access network unit(WANU)
2. The wireless access subscriber unit(WASU)
3. The switching function(SF)
WANU :
• the wireless access network unit (WANU) consists of the base
station transceivers (BTS) or radio ports (RP), the radio port
control unit(RPCU), an access manager (AM), and home
location register(HLR), as required.
• The WANU should provide for the authentication and privacy
of the air interface, radio resource management, limited
mobility management, and over-the-air registration of
subscriber units
• It may also be required to provide Operation and
Maintenance (OAMP), routing, billing and switching functions
as appropriate or necessary.
• The WANU also provides protocol conversion and transcoding
of voice and data.
WASU:
• WASU provides an air interface Uwll toward the network and a
“traditional” interface Twll to the subscriber.
• This interface includes protocol conversion and transcoding,
authentication and signaling functions.
• The power supply is provided locally.
• A modem function may also be required to support voice
band data so that analog signals such as data and Fax can be
transported over air digitally.
SF:
• Associated with a switch that can be a digital switch with or
without Advanced Intelligent Network (AIN) capability, an
ISDN switch, or a mobile switching center (MSC).
• The transmission between SF and WANU can be leased line,
cable or microwave.
 The Wireless Local Loop Technologies
The WLL systems are typically based on one of the following four
technologies
1. Satellite-Based Systems
2. Low-Tier PCS or Microcellular-Based Systems
3. Cellular-Based Systems
4. Fixed Wireless Access Systems
Satellite-Based Systems
• These systems provide telephony services for rural communities
and isolated areas such as islands.
• These systems can be of two types:
 Technology designed specifically for WLL applications
 Technology piggybacked onto mobile satellite systems as an
adjunct service
• Of these, the former offers quality and grade of service comparable
to wireline access, but it may be expensive.
• The latter promises to be less costly but, due to bandwidth
restrictions, may not offer the quality and grade of service
comparable to plain old telephone service (POTS).
 An example of a satellite based technology specifically designed for
WLL is the HNS telephony earth station (TES) technology. This
technology can make use of virtually any geostationary earth orbit
(GEO) C-band or Ku-band satellite.
Cellular-Based Systems
• These systems provide large power, large range, median subscriber
density, and median circuit quality WLL services.
• Cellular WLL technologies are primarily used to expand the basic
telephony services.
• Typically, they operate in the mobile frequency bands at 800-900
MHz, 1.8- 1.9 GHz, and sometimes at 450 MHz or 1.5 GHz [7].
• This approach offers both mobility and fixed wireless access from
the same cellular platform.
• For relatively sparsely populated rural and even urban settings, WLL
technologies based on existing cellular systems can be economical
• and rapidly deployable.
• Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) group TR.45 is
considering IS-136 (US Digital TDMA), IS-95 (US Digital CDMA) and
PCS-1900 (GSM) based systems for WLL. These systems are all
optimized for cellular telephony,
• cellular systems are optimized for high-tier coverage.
• Support for mobiles traveling in excess of 100 mph is
required.
• To achieve the above goals, extensive signal processing is
required, which translates into high delay, high overhead and
low user bandwidth.
• These systems are not well suited to deployment indoors and
in picocells. Additional complexity of the air interface with the
same low user bandwidth is required.
 As an example, the Global System for Mobile Communications
(GSM) uses high overhead forward error correction (FEC)
intra-burst interleaving and equalization to correct for high
fade rates. Block coding is also employed.
 The result is low user bandwidths, typically limited to 9.6 kb/s
data rates.
Low-Tier PCS or Microcellular-Based Systems
• These systems provide low power, small range, high
subscriber density, and high circuit quality WLL services.
• These technologies are considered to facilitate rapid market
entry and to expand the capacity of the existing
infrastructure.
• They are typically operated at 800 MHz, 1.5 GHz, 1.8 GHz, and
1.9 GHz frequency bands.
• Compared with the cellular-based WLL, more base stations
are required to cover the same service area
• Low-tier PCS and high-tier cellular air interfaces intended for
WLL can be connected to conventional switches and do not
require an MSC.
• Overlapping coverage areas and support of limited handover
between neighboring base stations or radio ports is desirable
in WLL systems as it improves the ability to perform
maintenance, increases the robustness of the system,
improves blocking statistics and provides for alternative
access during exceptional propagation activity
Fixed Wireless Access Systems
• These systems are proprietary radio systems designed
specifically for fixed wireless applications, which may or may
not be extensible to PCS or cordless.
• The primary disadvantage of the cellular approach is its
limitation on toll quality voice (new toll-quality vocoders
designed for cellular technologies may eliminate this
problem)and signaling transparency.
• The primary disadvantage of low-tier PCS and microcellular
approaches is their range.
• Nonstandard fixed wireless access (FWA) technology can
address these issues and become more efficient
 Deployment Issues
• To compete with other local loop technologies, WLL should
provide sufficient coverage and capacity, high circuit quality
and efficient data services. Furthermore cost should be
competitive.
• Several issues are considered in WLL deployment
1. Spectrum:
• Efficient spectrum management is the key to the success of
WLL
• The implementation should be flexible enough to
accommodate different frequency bands
• WLL can be implemented in licensed bands. The disadvantage
here is that access to licensed bands requires government
permission, incurring in an additional fee.
• An alternative is the unlicensed band where any device can
operate without government permission, provided it
conforms to specified requirements such as maximum and
average power ratings. However interference from other
devices may affect the quality of WLL.
• To avoid spectrum jams with other PCS services, one may
consider broadband WLL at 28 GHz, a frequency that is
relatively uncontested and easy to license in many countries.
• The higher the frequency , the greater the requirement for
line-of – sight radio path, due to higher path losses. This can
be reduced to some extent by using higher antenna gains.
Also,Propagation loss due to flora is more at higher
frequencies.
2. Service Quality:
• The customers expect WLL to offer the same quality as its wireline
counterpart.
• The quality requirements include toll voice and data transmission
quality, reliability and fraud immunity.
• Compared to wireline system, these requirements are more difficult
to achieve in WLL.
3. Network Planning:
• WLL penetration is required to be greater than 90%
• To achieve this goal , efficient network planning is essential
• The installation of WLL is different from that of a mobile system.
• A mobile system should allow moving users to access services
within the service area. On the other hand WLL assumes that
customers are not moving.
• Based on the customer population density at fixed locations,
the installation of WLL increases the importance of tasks such
as adjusting the antenna height .
4. Economics:
• The major cost of WLL is electronics and installation.
• The trend indicates that electronics becomes cheaper while
labour and installation will become more expensive.
 WILL - ADVANTAGES
• Fast service provisioning ---rapid installations
• Flexibility in planning ,expansion & reconfigurable.
• Less fault prone -- no physical medium
• Cost effective ---fast deployment > early access to revenue &
redeployment
• Customer interface -- reduced problems
• Highly suitable for difficult, inaccessible topographical
conditions
• High band width services -----64 Kb/S & 2 Mb/S
• Saves “copper”