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7QC Tools

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7QC Tools

 Check Sheets
 Pareto Diagram
 Cause and Effect Diagram.
 Stratification.
 Scatter Diagram.
 Histogram.
 Graphs and Control Charts.

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Check Sheet

Purpose
• How often are certain events happening
• Translating ‘Opinion’ into ‘Fact’
• Aid to the limited memory
• Making information collection easy from data
(Format)
• Good point to start most problem solving tools

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Types of Check Sheet

Diagram type check sheet Frequency check sheet

SN Class Mean Value Tally Marks Total


1 950-955 952.5 IIII 4
2 955-960 957.5 IIII III 8
3 960-965 962.5 IIII IIII IIII 15
4 965-970 967.5 IIII IIII 10
Mark defect by 5 970-975 972.5 IIII I 6

Inspection check sheet

Part No: Process: Machine:


Sn Parameter Spec Sample No Judgement Remark
1 2 3 4 5

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Pareto Diagram

• A bar chart that helps to prioritize actions by


arranging elements in descending order of
occurrence
• Sorts out the “vital few” from the “trivial many”
• Separates important from non-important causes
contributing to a problem

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How to make Pareto Diagram?
• Define a problem and collect data on the factors that
contribute to it.
• Historical records generally provide sufficient
information.
• Classify the data by type, cost , percent, number of
occurrences, or whatever is appropriate for the
situation.

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How to make Pareto Diagram?
• Arrange the data in descending order
• Calculate % contribution of each item
• Calculate cumulative % of each item
Rejection details of Pinion
Defect Defect Qty % Cum
Code description Rej Contribution %age
A Drill Broken 70 46.60% 46.60%
B Serration Mismatch 45 30% 76.60%
C Runout more 25 16.60% 93.20%
D Dia U/S 6 4% 97.20%
E Dia O/S 4 2.80% 100%
Total 150
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How to make Pareto Diagram……

• Draw bar graph showing constituent ratio on vertical


axis.
• Connect cumulative percentage of each bar graph to
obtain Pareto curve.
n=150 100%
97.2%
93.2%

75%
76.6%

50%
Nos. 70 46.6%
45
25 25%
6 4

A B C D E 8
Types of Pareto Diagrams

1. Pareto Diagrams by Phenomenon


• Quality: defects, faults, failure, complaints, RW etc.
• Cost: amount of loss, expenses
• Delivery: delay in delivery, stock shortages etc
• Safety: accidents, mistakes, breakdowns etc
2. Pareto Diagrams by Causes
• Operator: shift, group, age, experience, skill etc
• Machine: machines, equipments, tools, instruments etc.
• Material: manufacturer, plant, lot, kind etc
• Process: conditions, orders, arrangements,methods etc.

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Hints on Making Pareto Diagrams

1. Check various classifications and construct many kinds


of Pareto diagrams
Essence of a problem can be grasped by observing it from
various angles
2. It is undesirable that “others” represents a higher
percentage
A different method of classification should be considered
3. It is best to draw Pareto diagrams by assigning
monetary value
Cost is an important scale of measurement in
management. If financial implications of a problem are not
properly appreciated, the research itself may end up as
ineffective.

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Hints on Using Pareto Diagrams
1. If an item is expected to be amenable to a simple
solution, it should be tackled right away even if it is of
relatively small importance.
It will serve as an example of efficient problem solving, and
the experience, information and incentives to morale
obtained through this will be of great assets for future
problem solving.
2. Do not fail to make Pareto diagram by causes
After identifying the problem by making a Pareto diagram
by phenomenon, it is necessary to identify the causes in order
to solve the problem. It is therefore vital to make a Pareto
diagram by causes if any improvements are to be effected.

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Cause and Effect Diagram

• A graphic tool used to represent the relationship


between an effect and the cause that influence it
• Identifies various causes affecting a process
• Helps groups in reaching a common understanding of a
problem
• Helps reduce incidence of subjective decision making

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How to make Cause & Effect
Diagram?
• Define the problem or effect clearly and explicitly.
• Generate the potential causes of the problem
through brain storming.
• Encourage wild ideas
• ‘Quantity’ rather than ‘Quality’ of ideas
• Suspend judgment on ‘Good’ or ‘Bad’
• Ride on another’s idea
• Do not interrupt
• Record all responses
• Categorize all causes into major causes and give
suitable names
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How to make Cause & Effect
Diagram?
• Construct the cause and effect diagram by:
– Place problem statement in a box on right hand side
– Draw the major cause category boxes on the left
hand side. Commonly used categories are man,
machine, method, material and measurement
– Put all brainstorming ideas at respective major cause
category in Cause and Effect Diagram

• Identify likely root cause(s) and circle them


• Collect data to verify the most likely root causes
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Cause and Effect Diagram
Medical charts
People
Shortage of hard to tell apart
numbers
Reception
Nurses
work
Inexperience
Patients Many charts to input Long waiting
Two or more booked time after
in at same time completion of
ultrasonic scan
Busy
Charts from all
Many patients departments Record
come together findings
Reception Test
Rooms Handling
Computer
Data input
terminal Far away Calculation
slow takes time
of bill
Charts all
Environment Methods returned together
Hints on Making Cause and Effect
Diagrams
• Identify all the relevant factors through
examination and discussion by many people
• Express the characteristic as concretely as possible
• Make the same number of cause and effect
diagrams as that of characteristics
• Choose a measurable characteristic and factors
• Discover factors amenable to action

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Hints on Using Cause and Effect Diagrams

• Assign an importance to each factor objectively on the


basis of data
Examination of factors on the basis of your own skill and
experience is important, but it is dangerous to give importance
to them through subjective perceptions or impressions alone
(would have been solved by now if so). Assigning importance to
factors objectively using data is both more scientific and more
logical.
• Try to improve the cause and effect diagram
continuously while using it
Actually using a cause and effect diagram will help in
seeing those parts which need to be checked, deleted or
modified. This will be useful in solving problems, and at the
same time, will help improve your own skill and to increase your
technological knowledge

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Stratification

• Stratification is a statistical technique of breaking down


values and numbers into meaningful categories or
classification
• To identify the cause of problem if they come from a
particular source
• To analyze root cause in conjunction with other
techniques like Pareto diagram, histogram and graphs

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How to use Stratification
• Regroup original data as per the source of data
(e.g. Machine wise, shift-wise, model-wise, supplier-
wise)
• If required collect data afresh after making the
source from which they come.
• Recreate histogram, Pareto charts and graphs on
classified data

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Stratification
Month Model A Mode B
Apr 10 50
90
May 8 32
Jun 80 15 65
Jul 10 50
Aug 70 8 42
Sep 7 28
60
Rej Nos

50 Mode B
Model A
40
30
20
10
0
Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep
Month

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Stratification

V
V i
i s
s c
c o
o s
s i
i t
t y
y
Impurity Amount Impurity Amount

Before Stratification After Stratification

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Scatter Diagram

• A tool used to study the possible relationship between


two variables (Cause and Effect)
• Diagram makes it clear whether a relationship exists
and shows the strength of that relationship
• If data points are scattered very close to a trend, it
shows strong relationship otherwise it is weak
relationship

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How to make Scatter Diagram
• Collect 50 to 100 paired samples of data
believed to be related.
• Construct a data sheet.
• Draw the horizontal and vertical axis of the
diagram.
• Label the axes.
• “Cause”is usually plotted on the horizontal axis
and the “effect” variable on the vertical axis.
• Plot the data on the diagram. If values repeat,
circle that point.

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Interpretation

A B C
n=15 r=0.06 n=18 r=0.54 n=14 r=0.96

A. Randomly scattered points - No correlation


B. Possible Positive correlation
C. Strong positive correlation

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Interpretation

D E
n=22 r=- 0.5 n=18 r=-0.92

D. Possible negative correlation

E. Strong Negative correlation

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Correlation Coefficient

S(xy)
r= If r=0 No correlation
S(xx).S(yy)
n
If r=1 Very strong correlation
2
S(xx) = (xi -x) If r=-1 Very strong negative
i=1 correlation
n 2
S(yy) = (yi -y) If 0<r>1 Possible correlation
i=1

n
S(xy) = (xi -x) (yi –y)
i=1

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Significance of ‘r’

If calculated value of r is more than the table


value of r at 1% or 5% significance level at (n-2)
degrees of freedom, then at 99% or 95%
confidence we can say that correlation exists
between two or vice-versa.

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Notes on Correlation Analysis

1. Coordinate Axes:
Effect of choosing scale of axes
2. Stratification:
Stratify the data and then see the
correlation
3. Range of variables:
Select range of variables carefully as it
affects correlation

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Regression Analysis

Estimating the exact relationship between


dependent and independent variables

Line of best fit joining data y


points on a scatter diagram is a
regression line having equation
y=a+bx
where y is dependent
variable, x is independent
variable, a is a constant and b is x
regression coefficient

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Regression Analysis

Calculations:
1. Calculate x and y
2. Calculate S(xx) and S(xy)
3. Calculate b
b=S(xy)/S(xx)
4. Calculate a
a=y-b x
Then, equation of line is y=a+bx
Note: For both Correlation and Regression
Analysis, draw scatter diagram first

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Histogram
• A bar chart that displays the variation within the
process
• Also called a frequency distribution because the
frequency of occurrence of any given value is
represented by the height of the bars
• Allows one to quickly visualize what’s going on within
a large amount of data
• Provides clues to causes of problems
• May be used to show the relationship between the
engineering tolerance and the capabilities of the
process
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How to make Histogram?
• Collect measurements(variable data)from a process or
key characteristic.
• Thirty or more measurements are preferred.
• Construct check sheet to record the data.
• Find the range by subtracting the smallest
measurements from the largest.
• Using this guide determine the proper number of class
intervals.

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How to make Histogram……

Observations No. of classes(K)


25 to 50 5 to 8
51 to 100 6 to 11
101 to 250 9 to 13
251 and over 11 to 15

K=R/h +1 (R = Range)
Select h such that K is between 5~8

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How to make Histogram……

• Construct a frequency table by properly making class


boundaries. Tally the number of observations found in
each class.

C lass C lass lim its Tally N um ber of observations


1 0.51 to 5.50 IIII IIII 10
2 5.51 to 10.50 IIII IIII IIII IIII 20
3 10.51 to 15.50 IIII IIII IIII IIII IIII 25
4 15.51 to 20.50 IIII IIII IIII IIII 20
5 20.51 25.50 IIII IIII IIII 15
6 25.51 to 30 .50 IIII IIII 10

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How to make Histogram……
• Taking the class interval on horizontal axis, draw the
height of the bar corresponding to frequencies in
interval on the vertical axis.

25

20

15

10

0.55 5.5 10.5 15.5 20.5 25.5 30.5

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Types of Histogram

General Type Comb Type Positively Skew Type

Isolated Peak
Type
Left-hand Plateau Type Twin Peak Type
Precipice Type

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READING HISTOGRAMS
A. General Type
Shape symmetrical (Bell shaped). If your vendor has less variability but
centre is shifting you can help him to do right setting.
B. Bimodal or Twin Peak Type
Two Distributions with widely different mean values mixed.
C. Comb Type Multimodel
Number of units of data included in class varies from class to class.
Rounding off. Incorrect least count of measurement system
D. Positive Skew
Occurs when lower limit is controlled either theoretically or by
specification value or when values lower than certain value do not occur
E. Left Hand Precipice Type
100% screening has been done because of low process capability or when
positive skewness becomes more extreme. (Check your vendor if in receipt
supply having such pattern)
F. Plateau Type
Mixture of several distributions having different mean values, or 100%
screening on both sides
Normal Distribution

f(x)
•Frequency is the highest in the middle and becomes gradually lower towards the tail.
•It is symmetrical
It is denoted by N (
 : The centre of the distribution (the mean)
x
 : The spread of the distribution(the standard deviation)
To obtain a probability in a normal distribution, we standardize by transforming x to a
variable, u= x-
 , We then have a standard measure u, which is distributed as the
standard normal distribution N(0, 12). The normal distribution table gives probabilities in the
standard normal distribution.
 :- 68.3% of area
2 :- 95.4% of area
3 :- 99.7% of area

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Process Capability Index
After Histogram shows that it follows normal distribution, a study of
process capability is often undertaken. This is to find out whether the process
can meet specifications or not
Both-sided specifications (SU and SL)

CP = SU - SL/6s

One-sided specification (SU or SL)

CP = SU - x /3s

Evaluation of process:

1) 1.33  CP Satisfiable enough

2) 1.00  CP  1.33 Adequate

3) CP  1.00 Inadequate

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DIFFERENCE BETWEEN Cp & Cpk

1. Cp is a ratio of tolerance and six sigma.


It does not talk about process setting. This can be
appreciated that even if variability is small & setting is
out we will have Cp very high. This is therefore not an
effective indicator.
Even though process setting may be totally out, Cp value
could be well above 1.33. Therefore, Cp can be best
described as process potential index.

2. Cpk takes care of setting as well as


variation. Therefore Cpk describes the actual condition
Graphs
• Graphs are among the simplest and best techniques to
analyze and display data for easy communication
Bar Graph
Y e a r R e j C o s t
R e j. c o s t

1 9 89 0
6 5 0
1 9 9 7 4 5
6 0
1 9 9 8 7 0
4 0
2 0
0
1 9 9 6 1 9 9 7 1 9 9 8

Y e a r

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Graphs……

Trend Chart
M o n th Rej
Rejection %age

A pr 0 .8 0 .2
M ay 0 .6 0 .6
Ju n 0 .4 0 .2 Rej
Ju l 0 .2
0 .2
A ug 0 .1 5
0
S ep 0 .2
Apr May Jun Jul Aug S ep

M o nth

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Graphs…….

Pie Chart POWEROTHERS


RBS STRG.
STRG. 5.56%
ASSY.
4.92%
10.83%

R&P ASSY.
AXLE ASSY. 17.62%
28.67%

PROP.SHAFT
COLUMN
ASSY.
ASSY.
6.15%
26.25

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Control Charts

• A control chart is a line graph used to display variation


on time ordered fashion
• A centerline and control limits are placed on the graph
to help analyze the pattern of the data
• Purpose is to separate common causes from special
causes of variation and to help assign causes of
variation

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How to make Control Charts
• Define process parameter to be measured.
• Define wherein the process the control characteristics
will be measured.
• Select where control chart is to be used.
• Determine sample size and frequency.
• Take measurements.
• Plot measurements on graph.
• Connect dots.
• After 20 plot points calculate center-line and control
limits.
• Analyze pattern for special cause of variation

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Control Charts

• Chance Cause
• Assignable Cause
• Upper Control Limit
• Lower Control Limit
• Upper Specification Limit
• Lower Specification Limit

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Control Charts

x – R Chart:
50
UCL ( x + A2R )
40

x
30 x
20
LCL ( x - A2R )
0

60
UCL ( D4 R )
40
R
20 R
LCL ( D3 R )

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Coefficients for x-R Charts

Size of Sub-group X-Chart R Chart R Chart R Chart

n A2 D3 D4 d2
2 1.880 - 3.267 1.128
3 1.023 - 2.575 1.693
4 0.729 - 2.282 2.059
5 0.577 - 2.115 2.326
6 0.483 - 2.004 2.534

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Other Charts

pn Chart Number of Defective

p Chart Fraction Defective

c Chart No. of Defects on a


fixed sized Product

u Chart No. of Defects on a


varying sized product

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How to Read Control Charts

1. Out of Control Limits: Points outside the limits


2. Run: Continuously on one side of center line
• Seven-Point length of run is abnormal
• 10 Out of 11 consecutive points on one side
• 12 Out of 14 consecutive points on one side
• 16 Out of 20 consecutive points on one side
3. Trend: Continuous upward or downward curve

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How to Read Control Charts

4. Approach to the Control Limits


• Two out of three points occur outside of 2-sigma
limits is abnormal
5. Approach to the Center Line
• When most of the points are within central 1.5-sigma
lines, this is also abnormal. It indicates mixing odd
data in sub-groups
6. Periodicity
• When the curve repeatedly shows an up and down
trend for almost same interval, this is also abnormal

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