1

When any gas comes in contact with a

liquid, the gas will acquire vapor from the
liquid.

If contact is maintained for a considerable

length of time, vaporization continues until
equilibrium is attained, at which time the
partial pressure in the gas will equal the
vapor pressure of the liquid at the
temperature of the system.
Regardless of the duration of contact
between the liquid and gas, after equilibrium
the gas is then said to be saturated.

The gas mixture is at its dew point.

Dew point for the mixture of pure vapor and

non-condensable gas means the
temperature at which the vapor just starts to
condense when cooled at constant
pressure.
At saturation:

p H O  pH O
2

2

= vapor pressure of water at

temperature of the system

P  pair  pH O 2

pair nair pair

 
pH O nH O P  pair
2 2
EXAMPLE 1
A telescopic gas holder contains 10,000 ft3
of gas saturated with water vapor at 80F
and a pressure of 6.0 in H2O above
atmospheric. The barometer reads 28.46 in
Hg. Calculate the weight of water vapor in
the gas.
SOLUTION
P = 6.0 in H2O + 28.46 in Hg

 1 in Hg 
 6.0 in H2O   28.46 in Hg
 13.6087 in H2O 
= 28.90 in Hg

pH O = vapor pressure of H2O at 80F
2

 2.036 inHg 
= 0.5073 psi  0.5073 psi   
 1 psi 
= 1.032 in Hg
T = 80F = (80 + 460)R = 540R

Assuming the gas as an ideal gas:

PV t
28.9 in Hg 10,000 ft 
3

n 
RT 21.85 in Hg.ft / lbmol. R 540 R 
3 o o

= 24.49 lbmol
 
pH O nH O
 2 2

P n

pH O 1.032 in Hg
nH O  n
2
24.49 lbmol
2
P 28.9 in Hg
= 0.8745 lbmol

18 lb H2O
wH O  0.8745 lbmol 
2
1 lbmol H2O
= 15.74 lb
Relative saturation is defined as
pH O
RS   2

pH O2

where pH O : partial pressure of the vapor in

2

the gas mixture


pH O : vapor pressure of the vapor
2

component
If the subscript 1 denotes the vapor (H2O):
p1 p1 P n1 w 1
RS        
p1 p1 P n1 w 1
EXAMPLE 2: APPLICATION OF RELATIVE
HUMIDITY
The weather reported on the radio this
morning was that the temperature this
afternoon would reach 94F, the relative
humidity would be 43%, the barometer
29.67 in Hg, partly cloudy to clear, with the
wind from SSE at 8 mi/hr. How many
pounds of water vapor would be in 1 mi3 of
afternoon air? What would be the dew point
of this air?
SOLUTION

p
At 94F: H O = 0.80 psi
2

 2.036 in Hg 
 0.80 psi  
 1 psi 
= 1.63 in Hg

pH O  RSpH O  0.431.63 in Hg

2

2

= 0.7 in Hg = 0.3438 psi

 3
 5280 ft 
Vt =1 mi3  1 mi 
3
  1.472  10 ft
11 3

 1 mi 
T = 94F = (94 + 460)R = 554R
Assuming the gas as an ideal gas:
pH O V t
0.7 in Hg 1.472  10 ft 
11 3

nH O  2

2
RT 21.85 in Hg.ft / lbmol. R 554 R 
3 o o

= 8.51  106 lbmol

18 lb H2O
wH O  8,51 10 lbmol 
6
 1.53  10 lb
8
2
1 lbmol H2O
pH O  = 0.7 in Hg = 0.3438 psi
2

From Steam Table: Tdew = 68.2F

EXAMPLE 3: MATERIAL BALANCE WITH
CONDENSATION
If the atmosphere in the afternoon during a
humid period is at 90F and 80 RH
(barometric reads 738 mm Hg) while at night
it is at 68F (barometric reads 745 mm Hg),
what percent of the water in the afternoon
air is deposited as dew at night?
 SOLUTION

P = 738 mmHg P = 745 mmHg


p
At 90F: H O = 0.699 psi
2


At 68F: pH O = 0.342 psi
2
At day:

pH O  RSpH O  0.80.699 psi  0.56 psi

2

2

Based on Steam Table, the dew

temperature corresponds to pH2O 0.56 psi
is 82.8F.
Consequently, water does not condense
from the air as it cools.
P = 738 mmHg
1 psi
 738 mmHg   14.27 psi
51.715 mmHg
pdry air  P  pH O  14.27  0.56 psi = 13.71 psi
2

nH O pH O 0.56
2

2
  0.0392
nmoist air P 14.27

ndry air pdry air 13.71

   0.9608
nmoist air P 14.27
Basis: 1000 lb mol of moist (at day)

nH O  0.0392 nmoist air  39.2 lb mol

2

ndry air  0.9608 nmoist air  960.8 lb mol

At night: T = 68F pH O  0.342 psi

2

P = 745 mmHg

1 psi
 745 mmHg   14.41 psi
51.715 mmHg

pdry air  P  pH O  14.41  0.342 psi  14.06 psi

2

nH O pH O 0.342

2
 2
  0.0243
ndry air pdry air 14.06
nH O  0.0243 ndry air  0.0243 960.8 lb mol
2

= 23.35 lb mol
Water balance:

Water in moist air at day =

water in moist air at night +
water deposited as dew

39.2 lb mol = 23.35 lb mol +

water deposited as dew
Water deposited as dew
= (39.2 – 23.35) lb mol
= 15.85 lb mol

% water deposited as dew

15.85
  100%  40.4%
39.2
EXAMPLE 4: DEHYDRATION
By absorption in silica gel you are able to
remove all (0.93 kg) of the H2O from moist
air at 15C and 98.6 kPa. The same air
measures 1000 m3 at 20C and 108.0 kPa
when dry. What was the relative humidity of
the moist air?
SOLUTION

Basis: 1000 m3 bone-dry air (BDA) at 20C

and 108.0 kPa
Assuming air as an ideal gas:

pBDA V 108,000 Pa 1000 m3 

nBDA  
RT 8.314 m3 .Pa / mol.K  293.15 K 
= 44312 mol BDA = 44.312 kmol BDA

Water in the moist air = 0.93 kg

1 kmol
 0.93 kg   0.0517 kmol
18 kg
Partial pressure of water in the original
moist air:
nH O nH O
pH O  2
P 2
P
2
n ndry air  nH O
2

0.0517
 98.6 kPa  0.1149 kPa
44.312  0.0517

At 15C: pH O  1.7 kPa


2

pH O 0.1149
%RH    100% 2
 100%  6.8%
pH O 2
1 .7
EXAMPLE 5: HUMIDIFICATION
One thousand cubic meters of moist air at
101 kPa and 22C and with a dew point of
11C enters a process. The air leaves the
process at 98 kPa with a dew point of 58C.
How many kilograms of water vapor are
added to each kilogram of wet air entering
the process?
SOLUTION


Tdew (C) pH O (kPa)
2

11 1.31
58 18.27
Entering air:

Basis: 1000 m3 entering air at 22C and 101

kPa

Assuming air as an ideal gas:

PV t
101,000 Pa 1000 m  3

nmoist air  
RT 8.314 m .Pa / mol.K  295.15 K 
3

= 41159 mol = 41.159 kmol

pH O  1.31 kPa
2

pH O V t 1310 Pa 1000 m3 

nH O  2

2
RT 8.314 m3 .Pa / mol.K  295.15 K 

= 533.9 mol = 0.534 kmol

ndry air  nmoist air  nH O  41.159  0.534 kmol

2

= 40.625 kmol
Leaving air (98 kPa)
pH O  18.27 kPa
2

pH O 18.27
yH O  2
  0.1864
2
P 98
nH O
yH O  2

2
ndry air  nH O
2

nH O
0.1864  2
nH O  9.307 kmol
40.625  nH O 2
2
Water balance:

Water in in entering gas + water added

= water in the leaving gas

0.534 kmol + water added = 9.307 kmol

water added = 8.773 kmol

18 kg
 8.773 kmol 
1 kmol
= 157.9 kg
The entering air:
N MW W
(kmol) (kg)
Dry air 40.625 28.84 1171.6
H2O 0.534 18 9.6
1191.2

157.9 kg water
Water added =  0.134
1191.2 kg wet air in
36
Anatomy of the Psychrometric Chart

1. Dry Bulb Temperature is the air

temperature determined by an ordinary
thermometer.
The dry bulb temperature scale is located
at the base of the chart. Vertical lines
indicate constant dry bulb temperature.

38
Dry bulb temperature lines on a psychrometric chart39
2. Wet bulb temperature reflects the cooling
effect of evaporating water. The wet bulb
temperature scale is located along the curved
upper left portion of the chart. The sloping
lines indicate equal wet bulb temperature.

40
Wet bulb tempe-
rature can be
determined by
passing air over a
thermometer that
has been wrapped
with a small
amount of moist
cloth.
The cooling effect of the evaporating water
causes a lower temperature compared to the
dry bulb air temperature. 41
Wet bulb temperature lines on a psychrometric chart 42
3. Dew point temperature is the temperature
below which moisture will condense out of
air.
Air that is holding as much water vapor as
possible is saturated or at its dew point.
The dew point temperature scale is located
along the same curved portion of the chart
as the wet bulb temperature scale.
Horizontal lines indicate equal dew point
temperatures.
43
Dew point temperature lines on a psychrometric chart44
4. Relative Humidity
Relative humidity is a measure of how
much moisture is present compared to
the maximum amount of moisture the air
could hold at that temperature.
The 100 percent relative humidity (satu-
ration) line corresponds to the wet bulb
and the dew point temperature scale line.
The line for zero percent relative humidity
falls along the dry bulb temperature scale
line.
45
Relative humidity lines on a psychrometric chart 46
5. Humidity Ratio
Humidity ratio, also known as moisture
content, mixing ratio, or specific humidity, or
absolute humidity is the proportion of mass of
water vapor per unit mass of dry air at the
given conditions.
For a given dry-bulb temperature, there will be
a particular humidity ratio for which the air
sample is at 100% relative humidity.
Humidity ratio is dimensionless, but is some-
times expressed as kg of water/kg of dry air.
47
Humidity ratio on a psychrometric chart 48
6. Specific Enthalpy
Specific enthalpy, also called heat content
per unit mass, is the sum of the internal
(heat) energy of the moist air in question,
including the heat of the air and water vapor
within.
In the approximation of ideal gases, lines of
constant enthalpy are parallel to lines of
constant wet-bulb temperature.
49
Specific enthalpy

Specific Enthalpy on a psychrometric chart 50

7. Specific Volume
Specific volume, also called humid
volumw or inverse density (= 1/), is the
volume per unit mass of the air sample.
The SI unit : m3/per kg of dry air;
The British unit: ft3/lb of dry air.

51
 SV = 0.90 m3/kg dry air

Humidity Volume on a psychrometric chart 52

Example 6
Humid air at 28°C has a dew point of 8°C. Using
the psychrometric chart provided, determine the
following: relative humidity, absolute humidity,
wet-bulb temperature, dry-bulb temperature,
humid volume, specific enthalpy, and mass of air
that contains 2 kg of water, and volume occupied
by air that contains 2 kg of water.

53
Solution

0.862

16.4C

28%
8C 0.0066

28C

54
Using the psychrometric chart:
1. Relative humidity = 28%
2. Abs. humidity = 0.007 kg water/kg dry air.
3. Wet-bulb temperature = 16.4°C
4. Specific enthalpy = 46 kJ/kg
5. Specific volume = 0.862 m3/kg dry air
6. Mass of air that contains 2 kg of water:
2 kg water
  303.03 kg dry air
0.0066 kg water kg dry air
 0.862 m kg dry air 
3
volume     261.2 m3

 303.03 kg dry air  55

Example 7. Relative and Absolute
Humidity

The dry-bulb temperature is measured as 20°C

and the wet-bulb temperature as 15°C. If the
total pressure is 1 atm, what are the relative
humidity and the absolute humidity? Use the
humidity chart.

56
Solution

0.842 58%
15C

0.0088
0.8

28C

57
Solution

By using the psychrometric chart:

• The relative humidity = 58%
• The absolute humidity = 0.0088 kg water/kg air

58
Example 8: Heating at Constant Humidity
Moist air at 38C and 48% of relative humidity is
heated in a furnace to 86C. How much heat
must be added per cubic meter of initial moist
air, and what is the final dew point of the air?
The entering air:
T = 38 Vin = 0.91 m3/kg dry air
RH = 48% Hin = 90 kJ/kg dry air
Abs. humidity = 0.02 kg
water/kg dry air
The exit air
T = 86 Abs. humidity = 0.02 kg
water/kg dry air

Hout = 143 kJ/kg dry air

H = Hout – Hin = 53 kJ/kg dry air

Heat must be added per m3 of entering air:

 53 kJ   kg dry air 
  3 
 58.24 kJ m3

 kg dry air   0.91 m 

Final dew point = 25C

 Example 9: Combined Material and Energy
Balances for a Cooling Tower

You are requested to redesign a water-cooling

tower that has a blower with a capacity of 8.30 
106 ft3/hr of moist air (at 80F and a wet-bulb
temperature of 65F). The exit air leaves at 95F
and 90F wet bulb. How much water can be
cooled in pound per hour if the water to be
cooled is not recycled, enters the tower at 120F
and leaves at 90F?
Solution Water at 120F
C

Moist air
8.30  106 ft3/hr B Air
TDB = 80F TDB = 95F
TWB = 65F A TWB = 90F

D Water at 90F
 A B
TDB (F) 80 95
TWB (F) 65 90
H (Btu/lb dry air) 29.93 55.83
RH (%) 45 85
H (lb water/lb 0.0098 0.0297
dry air)
V (ft3/lb dry air) 13.82
Basis: 1 hr of operation
Moist air volume = 8.30  106 ft3
Weight of dry air
 lb dry air 
 8.3  10 ft 
6 3
3
 6.0  10 lb dry air
5

 13.82 ft 

Water evaporated

 0.0297  0.0098
lb water
6.0  10 lb dry air
5

lb dry air
= 1.194  104 lb water
The relative enthalpy of entering water stream is
(reference temperature is 32F and 1 atm):
Hwater ,in  CP,H O T = (1) (120 – 32)
2

= 88 Btu/ lb water
The relative enthalpy of exit water stream is
Hwater ,out  CP,H O T = (1) (90 – 32)
2

= 58 Btu/ lb water
Material balance for water:
Let W = lb water entering the tower
Lb of water leaving the tower = W – 1.194  104
Energy balance:
(enthalpy of water entering at C)
+ (enthalpy of air entering at A)
= (enthalpy of water leaving at D)
+ (enthalpy of air leaving at B)
W (88 Btu/lb water) +
(6.0  105 lb dry air) (29.93 Btu/lb dry air)
= (W – 1.194  104) (58 Btu/lb water) +
(6.0  105 lb dry air) (55.83 Btu/lb dry air)

W = 4.95  105 lb