Classification of Boilers

Boilers

By uses By pressure Firing method construction circulation Slag removal Fuel source

utility Low pressure stoker Field erected natural Wet bottom Waste heat

industrial High pressure cyclone Shop assembled Once through Dry bottom Oil/gas/solid

supercritical burners forced

Fluidized bed

Emphasis is on small oil/gas fired industrial boilers up to about 300-400K lb/h

 Steam
•First fire tube boiler-1769.
•Water tube boiler-1804.
•1856- B&W designed a natural circulation unit.
•1921-steam pressure 450 psig,650F.
•1924-550 psig,725F
•Reheat unit in 1924.
•1920 coal fired boilers.
•1925-3150 kw boiler at 1200 psi,700F /700F.

STEAM IS THE WORKING FLUID IN POWER & PROCESS PLANTS

High thermal capacity, high critical temperature, wide availability and non-
toxic nature has served to maintain its dominant position as a working fluid.
 History of Boilers

• 1940s - industrial boilers.

• 1957 commercial operation of a boiler with steam pressure above

3208 psi.125 MW B&W unit delivered 675,000 lb/h at 4550
psi,1150F/1050/1000F.

• 1960s-lot of sub critical utility boilers.

• 1970s-FBC-ability to reduce SO2 emissions.20 MW bubbling bed

boiler.

• 1987-1300 MW universal pressure boilers at 3485 psi,1010F/1000F.

Rankine Cycle
 Boilers and Power Generation
Modern fossil fuel fired stations use 1800 to 3500 psi cycles with steam temperature
ranging from 950 to 1050 F. Reheat cycles are used due to improved cycle efficiency.
US electricity generation-1990
Coal-55.5%,oil-4.2%,gas-9.4%, nuclear-20.5%, hydro-10%, other-.4%
Worldwide electricity generation-1988
Coal-44%,oil-10%,gas-8.5%,nuclear-17%,hydro-20%,other-.5%

coal
oil
gas
nuclear
hydro
other
Development of Steam Parameters
Steam Parameters and Cycle
Efficiency
Steam pressure vs Boiler type
 Supercritical Steam cycles
The first supercritical boiler(>3208 psig) was placed in service in 1957.Steam
arrives at the turbine at 3500 psi and 1050F. It is expanded to 540 psi and
reheated to 1050F and sent back.Power consumption of feed pumps is
high.In a 2400 psi cycle,feed pump consumes about 2.5 % of turbine output.
In a supercritical unit,it is about 5 %.However the improvement in thermal
efficiency justifies this. About 4 % more power is generated in SC units
compared to sub critical for similar plant parameters.
The boiler used for this application is a once through unit
as there is no need for any circulation system.Capacity
ranges from 300,000 lb/h to 10,000,000 lb/h. Steam
temperature is controlled by coordinated firing and
pumping rate. Reheater temperature is controlled by gas
bypass dampers,gas recirculation,excess air or
combination.Minimum flow is maintained in the furnace
to avoid DNB. Furnace tubes could be straight or spiral
wound.Spiral wound design increases the tube side
velocity and provides cooling under all loads.It is also
suitable for cycling and frequent startups.
 SUPERCRITICAL UNITS
region number Size, MW
USA 164 300-1100
EUROPE 60+ 200-1100
Japan 50+ 500-1000
russia 240 300-1200
woldwide 520 200-1200

•Efficiency
•Lower emissions. Each 1% efficiency increase an 800MW plant generates about
1 million tons less of CO2 over its life time
•Availability better as teething issues sorted out
•Materials such as P91,TP347FG,super 304
•3500 psig,1100 F new parameters. Eddystone has operated at 4700 psig,1120 F
•Load following capability better. Needs 15-20% less time for cold starts as they
lack drums. Can accommodate cycling also
 Boiler Capacity vs Time

Capacity vs Period
5000
4500
USA
4000
3500
capacity,t/h

3000
2500
2000
FRG (Germany)
1500
1000
500 year
0
1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Utility Boilers
 Steam flood generator

Steam pressure ranges from 1500-3000 psig

Oil or gas fired mobile units . high TDS in water
Multi-pass pass dry back fire tube boiler
DRY AND WET BACK BOILERS

Note the turning section which is

water cooled. There is no refractory
there(at 2000 F ).Hence fewer
maintenance problems compared to
dry back boilers. Little more
expensive.

Dry back boiler

Wet back boiler

Fire Tube boiler with Superheater
 BATH HEATERS

This concept of maintaining a hot water bath and heating viscous fluids which
cannot handle high heat fluxes is used in refineries. Natural convection heat
transfer between fluid coils and the bath ensure low heat fluxes.
 Boiler HP conversion
Packaged Fire tube boilers are traditionally purchased in terms of Boiler
Horse Power. BHP refers to steam capacity of 34.5 lb of steam at
atmospheric pressure with feed water at 212 F.However a boiler operates
at different steam pressures and temperatures. Hence conversion
between BHP and steam flow is necessary:
W=33475 BHP/DH where DH =enthalpy absorbed by steam=(hg-
hf)+BD(hl-hf)
Hg,hl,hf=enthalpy of sat vapor,liquid and feed water,Btu/lb
W=steam flow,lb/h, BD=blow down,fraction
Example:A 500 BHP boiler generates sat steam at 125 psig with a 5%
blow down with feed water at 230 F.1193,325,198 are the enthalpies of
steam,liquid and feed water.
Hence W=500x33475/[1193-198+.05x(325-198)]=16,714 lb/h
Boiler Economizer Arrangement
D-type Boiler Arrangement
 O-type Package boiler

Another variation of custom designed package boiler…

O-type design has an integral furnace and convection bank consisting of
extended surfaces to minimize length and a horizontal gas flow economzier.
If boiler width is a concern, this design is ideal.
Suitable for clean fuels as finned tubes are required for convection
section.Superheater could be buried within convection bank if required.
Using finned tubes in package boilers is not a new concept
 PLAIN VS FINNED EVAPORATOR
Item Plain tube (A,D,O type) finned tube (O type)

Steam generation, kg/h 55 55

Steam temperature, ºC 231 231
Steam pressure,kg/cm2g 28 28
Furnace width x height 1.9 x 2.75 1.9 x 2.75
Furnace length, m 7.6 7.6
Tubes/row convection 16 16
Number of rows deep 75 9+16(9 plain ,16 finned)
Fin details - 4x75x.05x.172
Total boiler width, m 3.7 1.85
Total boiler length, m 8 11
Gas temp to convection, ºC 1303 1303
Gas temp to eco, ºC 313 351
Exit gas temp, ºC 149 149
Efficiency, % LHV 93 93
Furnace back press, mm wc 116 100
D type Boiler Details
Boiler circulation systems
Energy Distribution in Boilers

As the steam pressure changes,so does the distribution of

sensible,latent and superheat duties.
Effect of steam presure

As the steam
pressure
increases,the
superheater
absorption
increases and
evaporator duty
decreases

Furnace sizing also

depends on
fuels,ash melting
temperatures,steam
temperatures
 Shop assembled boilers
Shipping limitations determine capacity
Can be built in modules
Solid fuels also fired
•Up to 300,000 lb/h steam
•1500 psig,1000F
•Pressurized furnace
•Single FD fan
•Steam temperature control
•Quick startup charactersitics
•Completely water cooled
furnace
•Custom designed to minimize
operating costs
•Economizer as heat recovery
•Oil or gas fired
Water Cooled Furnace
Advantages of Completely water cooled
Furnace
•Lower heat flux for a given volume,about 9 to 12 %
•Lower area heat release rate and hence lower NOx
•Absence of reradiation from refractory near the flame
front,where most NOx formation occurs
•Lower excess air or FGR rates may be used due to less intense
combustion process compared to a refractory lined furnace
•Furnace is leak proof and hence no leakage of gases to second
pass,which results in larger CO formation and inefficiency
•No refractory maintenance concerns
•Startup rates can be faster as concerns with refractory breaking
or cracking are absent
•No casing leaks or corrosion concerns
220,000 lb/h 850 psig boiler
Shipping large boilers
Boiler Assembly
 Furnace types

Symmetry of A and O types makes them suitable for

shipping/trailer mounted units. Design of convective
superheaters cumbersome in A and O.Splitting up of
superheater may be warranted.
The “O” style boiler is also a design with
two drums, vertical tube boiler bank, and a
water-cooled furnace, but with a
symmetrical design.

Capacity range: 10,000 to 120,000 lbs/hr

BURNER

Advantages:

•Symmetrical Design For Easy Shipment

•Lower Draft Loss = Lower Fan HP

•Vertical Gas Outlet Minimizes Footprint

•Economical 2-Drum Design

Boilers with side ash clean out
ports: saw dust application
 B
U

The “A” style boiler is a three-drum designR

N
E
with one upper (steam) drum and two lower R

drums and is capable of producing very

large steam capacities at any pressure or
temperature.

Capacity range: 10,000 to 275,000 lbs/hr

Advantages:

•Symmetrical Design For Easy Shipping

•Lower Draft Loss = Lower Fan HP

•Vertical Gas Outlet Minimizes Footprint

A type boilers

275,000 lb/h oil/gas fired boilers

Tubes are rolled & welded for high-pressure service.
 D-type inverted-loop A-type inverted-loop
convection superheater convection superheater
Radiant superheaters
CONVECTIVE SUPERHEATERS:
• Located safely in the boiler convection bank protected from
direct furnace radiation
• Steam temperatures up to 1,050 F
• Single & Dual-Stage designs available
• Temperature control over turndown
• Custom D-Type Boilers for
large steam capacities
(250,000+ lb/hr.) and high
pressures (1,000+ psig)
• Generous furnace meets low
volumetric heat release rates
• Minimum field work
• Work involved to complete
boiler assembly are
– Set the steam drum on
saddles
– Weld the prefab
riser/down comer piping
– Mount burner using pre-
installed mounting plates
400,000 lb/h,
700 psig

Units during installation at jobsite

INSTALLATION OF ELEVATED DRUM BOILERS
SCHEME FOR IMPROVING BOILER EFFICIENCY
ELEVATED DRUM BOILER – 200 T/H SHOP ASSEMBLED BOILER
ELEVATED DRUM BOILER MANUFACTURING
 Construction Features
• 2” OD Tubes
• Membrane Wall
Furnaces
• Scallop Gas Seals
• Rigid Steel Base
• Heavy Gage
Steel Outer
Casing
IMPROVING EFFICIENCY OF BOILERS

Being patented by Nebraska co. -for gas fired boilers

IMPROVING EFFICIENCY –GAS FIRED BOILER
 LOWERING FEED WATER TEMPERATURE TO
IMPROVE EFFICIENCY

Item Case 1 Case 2

Steam flow, kg/h 90740 90740

Steam pressure,barg 27.6 27.6

Feed water temp, ºC 110 60

Blow down,% 1 1

Exit gas temp, ºC 153 115

Efficieciency,%LHV 93.2 95.0

Efficiency,% HHV 84.1 85.74

Energy to steam, MM kcal/h 50.78 55.37

Fuel LHV, MM kcal/h 54.48 58.28

If you evaluate the energy consumed in deaeration process,you can the

advantage.Fuel consumed is only 3.8 mm kcal/h more but 4.59 mm kcal/h
is transferred to steam
 Forced Circulation Steam Generator

Furnace and convection section have separate circulation piping system

FC-OSSG 3D VIEW
 FC- OSSG
•Combine the features of traditional OTSGs with the advantages of
Drum Type Boilers. The result is the Forced-Circulation Oil Sands
Steam Generator (FC-OSSG)
•Followed the same conservative product development template
that has worked at CB for years. Used standard design features
from our existing product line:
– Forced circulation circuit designs
– Water cooled membrane furnace walls
– Elevated drum with down comers & risers to complete
the circulation system
– Modularization to meet Alberta market needs
– Low emission Burners to meet future limits
 FC-OSSG AT SITE

150-200 t/h,75 barg with oil field treated water

FC-OSSG: Flow Management

CONVECTION
 Limitations of Standard Boilers
•Furnace designs developed decades ago when emissions was not a
concern.With fuel,air staged Low-Nox burners,flame shapes are
different and flame impingement on furnace walls a concern.
•Effect of excess air,FGR not optimally considered.15 % excess air,15
% FGR typical.This increases flue gas flow by 26 % and results in 60
% higher gas pressure drop if boiler design is not reconfigured.1 in
wc additional gas pressure drop in a 100,000 lb/h = 5 to 7 kw.
•650 psig,750 F steam has enthalpy pickup of 1193 Btu/lb versus 1003
Btu/lb for 150 psig sat steam with 230 F water. The increase in duty of
19 % increases flue gas flow,43 % increase in gas pressure drop if
boiler were not redesigned.Similarly deleting the economizer
increases gas flow by 7-10 % and 15 to 20 % increase in gas pressure
drop. In sum,Standard boiler is a compromised offering and is
costly to operate in the long run,though lower in initial cost..
A Custom designed boiler is the right choice !
 Reducing Boiler Operating cost through
Custom Designing
Reducing Boiler Gas Pressure Drop Through Custom Designing

Item Standard Custom boiler

Furnace length x width x height 32 ft x 7 ft x 11 ft 32 ft x 7 ft x 11 ft

Furnace exit gas temp, F 2167 2167
Gas temp leaving evaporator, F 550 683
Exit gas temperature, F 323 323
2
Boiler surface area, ft 8920 6710
Economizer area, ft2 10076 14107
Geometry Evaporator Economizer Evaporator Economizer
Tubes/row 16 18 12 18
No of rows deep 96 12 96 14
Effective length, ft 10 10 10 12
Gas pr drop, in wc, evaporator 11.0 7.0
Gas pr drop, in wc, economizer 1.7 1.6
Transverse pitch, in 4 4 5 4

150,000 lb/h 235 psig

 Boiler Surface Area Comparisons
Item Boiler1 boiler2

HRR(Btu/ft3h) 90500 68700 100,000 lb/h

HRR(Btu/ft2h) 148,900 116,500 300 psig,230 F
Furnace length x width x ht 22x6x10 29x6x10 water,n.gas,10
Furnace exit gas temp,F 2364 2255 % excess air
back pr=7 in wc
Boiler exit gas temp,F 683 611
Efficiency =
Economizer exit gas,F 315 315 84.3 % HHV
Furnace proj area(duty) 802(36.6) 1026(40.4)
Boiler evap area(duty) 3972(53.7) 4760(52.1) Boiler performance
Eco surf(duty) 8384(10.5) 8550(8.3) is the same in both
cases, though
Evap tubes/row,no deep,length 11x66x9.5 10x87x9.5 surface areas differ!
Eco tubes/row,no deep,length 15x14x11 15x10x10 Selecting the option
requires knowledge
Eco fin geometry 3x.75x.05 serr 5x.75x.05 serr and experience.
Tr pitch evap/eco 4/4 4.375/4
 Why Economizer and not an air
heater?
Economizers are widely used in package boilers instead of air
heaters as heat recovery equipment for the following reasons.
•Combustion temperature is increased if an air heater is
used,thus increasing NOx
•Gas/air side pressure drops are much higher with an air heater
say 4 to 5 in wc vs 1 in wc for an economizer
•Furnace heat flux is also higher if an air heater is used.
•Air heater may be required on boilers using difficult to burn
fuels such as coal and low Btu fuels
•Corrosion potential is higher as tubes operate at lower
temperatures
EXCESS AIR, FGR IN BOILERS

Excess air: 15 %
FGR 10 to 25 % (for 9 ppmv NOX)
METHODS OF HANDLING NOX
EMISSIONS
 SCR ARRANGEMENT
4NO + 4NH3 + O2 => 4N2 + 6H2O + NH3 slip 6NO + 4NH3 => 5N2 + 6H2O+ NH3 slip
NO + NO2 + 2NH3 => 2N2 + 3H2O + NH3 slip 6NO + 4NH3 => 5N2 + 6H2O + NH3 slip
2NO2 + 4NH3 + O2 => 3N2 + 6H2O+ NH3 slip
EFFECT OF LOAD VS GAS TEMPERATURES
 Performance without economizer
Problem:If we look at the performance at say 100 %,gas temperature leaving
evaporator is 739 F.If the economizer is removed from service,will the gas
temperature be still 739 F at the same steam generation rate? Will the gas
pressure drop be lower?
Solution:The answer is no. The boiler efficiency drops by at least (739-
327)/40=10.3 %. Hence the new efficiency will be less than 83.66-10.3=73.36 %.
2.The boiler fuel and flue gas quantity will increase by the same ratio. The new
heat input=(118.71/.733)=161.8 MM Btu/h vs (118.71/.8366)=141.9 MM Btu/h.
hence the air flow, flue gas flow will be higher by 161.8/141.9=1.14 or 14 % or
142,800 lb/h vs 125246 lb/h.
3.The furnace exit gas temperature will be higher as heat input is higher. Hence
the average gas temperature entering the convection will be higher as also the
exit gas temperature, which will be about 770-780 F.
4.The gas pressure drop also will be higher and probably more than before due to
the higher mass flow and higher gas temperature in the convection.
CONCLUSION: Removing economizer and generating steam at the same
capacity can cause problems.
 Typical Boiler Efficiency
Fuel n.gas n.gas n.gas n.gas #2 oil #2 oil #2 oil #2 oil

Excess air,% 10 10 20 20 10 10 20 20

Exit gas,F 300 400 300 400 300 400 300 400

Efficy,% HHV 84.2 81.94 83.8 81.37 87.94 85.6 87.5 85.1

Efficy,% LHV 93.45 90.94 93.00 90.3 94.00 91.5 93.5 91.0

Standard natural gas and #2 fuel oil analysis used.1 % total

casing and unaccounted losses.
 Simplified Efficiency Calculations
Excess air for natural gas and fuel oil may be approximated using the
expressions,where O2 is oxygen in dry flue gas by volume.
Gas: % EA= 90 x O2/(21-O2) Oil: % EA=95 x O2/(21-O2)
Efficiency may be estimated using:
N.GAS h = 89.4-(0.001123+0.0195EA)T l = 99.04-(0.001244+0216EA)T

LIGHT FUEL OILS :h = 92.9-(0.001298+0.01905EA)T l =99.0-(0.001383+0.0203EA)T

Example: nat gas at 15 % excess air is fired in a boiler

Based on 1 % radiation
with exit gas temperature of 280 F and amb temperature plus unaccounted losses
of 80 F. EA in above equation is 1.15 and T =200 F and typical fuel
h = 89.4-(.001123+.0195x 1.15)x200 =84.6 % analysis
l = 99-(.001244+.0216x1.15)x200 = 93.8 %
 Efficiency - ASME Heat Loss method
•Dry gas loss L1=24Wdg(tg-ta)/HHV
•Loss due to combustion of hydrogen,moisture in fuel L2=(9H2+W)x(1080+.46tg-
ta)x100/HHV
•Loss due to moisture in air L3=46MWda(tg-ta)/HHV
√
•Casing heat loss L4:0.173x10-8(Tc4-Ta4)+.296(Tc-Ta)1.25 (V+69)/69
•Unaccounted loss & margin L5
Wdg=dry flue gas,lb/lb fuel HHV=100-L1-L2-L3-L4-L5
Wda=dry air,lb/lb fuel HHV x HHV = LHV x LHV
H2,W=hydrogen,moisture in fuel,fraction
M=moisture in air,lb/lb dry air=.622 Pw/(14.7-Pw)
Pw=partial pressure of water vapor in air,psia=rel hum x SVP
tg,ta=exit gas and ambient reference temperature,F
Tc,Ta=absolute casing and ambient temperatures,R
V=wind velocity,fpm:  =casing emissivity
 Boiler performance vs Load
420 95

94

370
93

92
320

LHV efficiency,%
91
temperature,C

270 90

89

220
88

87
170

86

120 85
20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
load, %
Boiler concept
Typical boiler scheme
 Combustion Controls
Single point positioning:Simplicity and safety.A common jackshaft is modulated
by a power unit based on variations in boiler drum pressure and is mechanically
linked to both the fuel control valve and air control damper.This system is limited to
integral fan units only and is not for simultaneous firing of two fuels or when fuel
heating value varies.
Full metering with cross-limiting:This is for accurate air/fuel ratios;keeping
oxygen levels optimized and for firing precision.Fuel and air are metered
continuously and adjusted as required to maintain desired air/fuel ratio. Air leads
fuel on load increases and fuel leads air on load decreases. Allows simultaneous
firing of two or more fuels and also when heating values vary. Expensive.Used
when CO limits are strict(<50 ppm)
Parallel positioning with position feedback:This is used when pneumatic units
and valves are required(hydrogen firing) but full metering is not. Position sensors on
fuel and air control valves provide feedback for correct tracking and allows
shutdown if not safe. Simultaneous firing of two or more fuels not allowed.
Oxygen trim added with CO control is required with single point systems
 Soot Blowers
Cleaning medium may be dry saturated steam,superheated steam or compressed
air.Superheated steam is effective as moisture in steam can cause erosion.Also it has
greater cleaning potential on a pound basis due to the higher sonic velocity through
the nozzles.This increase in sonic velocity more than offsets the loss of jet energy due
to lower density. Kinetic energy of a steam jet at 200 psia is approximately twice that
of air at same blowing pressure.(as density of air is higher compared to steam)
On larger boilers,compressed air is also used.Source may be 350-500 psig
reciprocating compressors or centrifugals discharging at 150-225 psig. Steam piping
must be designed for drainability,warming up,protection from freezing.Increasing of
capacity of steam system is easier to accomplish as capacity limited by pressure
reducing valves.Air systems demand a higher flow rate for cooling due to lower heat
transfer coefficients.
Fixed blowers or non-retractable: lower gas temperatures (<1500 F)where high
cleaning energy is not required.Nozzle size ranges from .25 to .375 in.
Retracts have a larger cleaning range,bigger nozzles and length vary from 3 to 50
ft.Translational speed may vary from 35 in/min to 200 in.min. Special oscillating
blowers are used to clean specific areas such as furnace walls.Air medium requires a
compressor while steam is available from the boiler itself. Water not recommended as
blowing medium due to shock and fatigue effects.
 Acoustic Cleaners
Acoustic cleaners operate on standard plant air 70-90 psi with air consumption of 60 scfm when
sounding. Typically an acoustic cleaner operates for 10 secs every 10 minutes.Used in bag
houses,SCR catalysts. Effective where blind spots of soot blowers cant clean.Sound energy
creates fluctuations in static pressure of a flowing gas stream which causes any particles
suspended in gas stream to oscillate. This action loosens deposits.
Acoustic cleaners have only 1 moving part,a titanium diaphargm. The frequent sounding of the
AC keeps soot deposits from building up.The low frequency (~75 hz)high energy sound waves
emitted by AC are not damaging to boiler tubes or refractory. No steam piping or steam
consumption. Low installation cost. The following conditions are to be met for optimal cleaning:
1.Low moisture content-improves cleaning as build up is less.
2.Sound pressure level has to high enough throughout the vessel-140-150 db one meter from
horn.
3.Cycle time between bursts should be short so particles do not adhere to each other. 10-15
secs every 10-20 min.
4.Particle removal:In vertical flow units,gravity can remove particles. In horizontal units,gas
velocity should be high enough(16 ft/s) to carry away the particles without fluidizing them.
5.Sonic devices are designed for keeping a surface clean not getting it clean like a soot blower.It
is important that we start with clean surfaces.

Boilers: One 250 hz ,147 db horn will clean a diameter of 10 ft

 Boiler Furnace
Furnace is the heart of the steam generator.
•Combustion must be complete-no unburnt carbon,CO
•Furnace exit gas temperature must not cause slagging
problems if molten ash forms
•Heat release rates must be within limits to avoid DNB
concerns.(area heat release rates more significant than
volumetric for gas/oil fuels).
•Flame impingement should be avoided
•Circulation should be good
•Emissions should be met

Package boiler furnaces are typically pressurised with single FD fan

operation up to about 350,000 lb/h capacity. Furnace pressure could
be as high as 30-35 in wc.
 Furnace construction
Partition wall is also
membrane walled and
helps eliminate
bypassing of flue
gases from furnace to
convection
bank,improving
efficiency and
lowering CO
formation

Water cooled furnaces of membrane wall design are widely used

Departure from Nucleate Boiling

When heat flux exceeds critical value,the boiling

process is disrupted resulting in overheating of
tubes.
 Furnace Exit Gas Temperature

Furnace exit gas temperature is higher on gaseous fuels than on oil.

Hence superheater performance will be impacted by fuel as also furnace
heat absorption and heat flux.Low BTU fuels can also result in lower
values. Calculation of net heat input is based on LHV.
FURNACE EXIT GAS TEMPERATURE
 Energy transfer in boiler Furnaces
The energy transferred to the furnace Q in Btu/h is obtained from:
Q=Apv1v2s(Tg4-Tw4)=WfLHV-Wghe where:
Tg,Tw=average gas and tube wall temperature,R
v1,v2=emissivity of flame and wall
s=radiation constant
Ap=effective furnace area,ft2
Wf,Wg=fuel and flue gas quantity,lb/h
he=enthalpy of flue gases leaving furnace, Btu/lb
LHV=lower heating value of fuel,Btu/lb
Determine the energy absorbed by a package boiler furnace firing natural
gas:furnace projected area=1169 ft2,boiler duty=118.71 MM Btu/h, Flue gas =125246
lb/h,efficiency=92.73 % LHV basis,0.8 % heat loss. Net Heat Input =
118.71x0.992/0.9273=127 MM Btu/h. NHI/Ap =127x106/1169=108,900 Btu/ft2h.
FOT(furnace exit temperature)=2235 F. Enthalpy of flue gases at 2235 F is 661.4
Btu/lb. Hence furnace duty=127x106-125246x661.4=44.2 Mm Btu/h. The average
heat flux=44.2x106/1169=37,810 Btu/ft2h
 Furnace Radiation
Flames may be luminous and non-luminous. Radiation intensity of a luminous or
semi-luminous flame is determined by presence of solid particles such as
coke,ash,soot in the combustion products. For a non-luminous flame,it is the
presence of triatomic gases. Gaseous substances have lower radiation intensity
compared to solids.
Intensity of radiation of solid particles in a flame depends on particle size,
particle concentration and properties of the solid. Coke particles are of size 10-
250mm but concentration is small-0.1 kg/m3 and concentrated near the
burners.Their radiation is only 25-30% of total furnace radiation. Ash particles
are of same size but distributed all over the furnace volume.Their radiation is
40-60% of total furnace radiation.
In fuel oil fired boilers radiation varies along furnace length.Intense soot
particles near burner have high radiation while beyond,it gets lower. Hence
flame emissivity calculations involve two parts,one luminous and another non-
luminous.
Ef=mEl +(1-m)Enl ,where Ef,El,Enl are emissivities of flame and luminous and
non-luminous portions and m is a coefficient. For natural gas,m=0.1,while for
fuel oils,it is 0.55.For solid fuels,since flame is equally bright all over the
furnace,m=1.
Membrane wall temperatures
Furnace temperatures
 Materials
Low carbon steels(<0.15% carbon)widely used as welded pressure parts at low
pressures.For structural applications and high pressure pressure parts, medium
carbon steel is used(0.15-0.23% C).oxygen evolved during solidification. If no oxygen
is evolved, it is killed steel. All steel used in boilers is killed steel.
Low and medium alloy steels with Cr and Mo increase oxidation resistance and
strength.T91 has 9% Cr and has tendency to embrittlement but has very high
strengths and used up to 1200F.
The common stainless steel alloys(18% Cr-8% Ni) are 300
series.304,321,347,316,309,310H is added for high temperature service.304H is
widely used.All these require high temperature heat treatment after forming.
Ferritic stainless steels contain at least 10% Cr-has ferrite and carbide structure. As
they are subject to embrittlement, they are not used as pressure parts. Used as studs
for holding refractory or as shields. Difficult to weld.
Duplex alloys or bi-metallic :Load carrying alloy covered with an external layer of
corrosion resistant alloy. Carbon steel clad with 304L used in paper mills. carbon steel
or 0.5Cr-0.5Mo clad with alloy 825(42Ni-21.5Cr-5Mo-2.3Cu) used in refuse fired
boilers.
Chromizing and alonizing used to protect tube ID surfaces from exfoliation.
 Boiler materials
Material Composition Max temp,F Where used
Sa 178A(47K) C steel 950 Water wall,econ,evaporator
Sa 192(47K) C steel 950 Water wall,econ,evaporator
Sa 178C(60K) C steel 950 Water wall,econ,evaporator
Sa 210A1(60K) Csteel 950 Water wall,econ,evaporator
Sa 106B(60K) Csteel 950 Headers,pipe
Sa 210C(70K) C steel 950 Water wall,econ,evaporator
Sa516-70(70K) Csteel 800 Boiler drum
Sa 299 C steel 800 Boiler drum,headers
Sa 213-T11 1.5cr-.5 mo-si 1050 superheaters
Sa 213 T22 2.25cr-1mo 1100 Superheaters,reheaters
Sa 213-T91 9cr-1mo-v 1200 superheaters
Sa 213-TP304H 18cr-8ni 1400 Superheater,heaters
Sa 213-TP347H 18cr-10ni-cb 1400 Superheaters,reheaters
Sa213-TP310H 25cr-20ni 1500 Superheaters,reheaters
SB407-800H Ni-cr-fe 1500 Heater tubes,MSW,OTSG
SB-423-825 Ni-cr-fe-mo-cu 1000 MSW superheaters