Radioactivity

Chapter 25
Nuclear Radiation

• Nuclear chemistry
• study of the structure of atomic nuclei
• changes they undergo.
The Discovery of Radioactivity

• Wilhelm Roentgen (1845–1923)

• 1895-invisible rays were emitted when
electrons bombarded the surface of
certain materials.
• caused photographic plates to darken.
• named the invisible high-energy
emissions X rays.
The Discovery of Radioactivity
• Henri Becquerel (1852–1908) was
studying phosphorescence
• minerals that emit light after being
exposed to sunlight
•phosphorescent
uranium salts
produced
spontaneous
emissions that
darkened
photographic plates.
The Discovery of Radioactivity
• Marie Curie (1867–1934)
and her husband Pierre
(1859–1906) took
Becquerel’s mineral
sample (called
pitchblende) and isolated
the components emitting
the rays.

• darkening of the photographic plates was

due to rays emitted specifically from the
uranium atoms present in the mineral
sample.
The Discovery of Radioactivity

• Marie Curie named the process by

which materials give off such rays
radioactivity
• the rays and particles emitted by a
radioactive source are called
radiation.
Types of Radiation
• isotopes are atoms of the same
element that have different numbers of
neutrons.
• Isotopes of atoms with unstable nuclei
are called radioisotopes
• emit radiation to attain more stable
atomic configurations in a process
called radioactive decay
• lose energy by emitting one of several
types of radiation.
 Why do some atoms decay?
• The nucleus contains tightly packed
protons and neutrons (nucleons)
• The strong nuclear force keeps the
nucleons packed together even though
protons want to push each other away
• Stable atoms have a neutron to proton
ratio of about 1:1
• As atomic number increases, more
neutrons are required to have enough of a
strong force to keep the protons pushed
together
• The neutron to proton ratio for stable
atoms increases to 1.5:1
 Band of Stability
• When the number of
protons and neutrons are
plotted, the stable nuclei
are found within the “band
of stability”
• Radioactive isotopes are
outside the band of
stability
– They will undergo nuclear
reactions to become more
stable
– All elements higher than
atomic# 83 are radioactive
 Basic Assessment Questions
Topic
26 Question 3
Calculate the neutron-to-proton ratio for .
 Types of Nuclear Radiation
• Alpha
• Beta
• Gamma
 Alpha Radiation
• Release of 2 protons and 2 neutrons
– Equivalent to a He nucleus
– Charge of 2+
– Mass = 4 amu
• Largest and slowest
– Least penetrating  can be stopped by paper
• Changes to a different element with a lower
atomic mass and lower atomic number
• Example: Polonium-212 (atomic# 84) is
converted to Lead-208 (atomic# 82)
 Beta Radiation
• Decay of a neutron into a proton and
electron
– Electron is emitted, proton stays
– Forms a new element b/c of addition of proton
• Decay of the proton into a neutron and
positron (like a positive electron)
– The positron is emitted as a beta particle
• Faster than alpha particles  can be
stopped by aluminum foil
 Gamma Radiation
• Not a particle
• Electromagnetic wave with short
wavelength and high frequency & energy
• No mass, no charge
• Very fast  speed of light
• Stronger than X-ray
• Stopped by several centimeters of lead
• Transmutation: changing one element into
another through radioactive decay
– Adding or removing a proton changes the
atomic number, resulting in a different element
• Half-Life: amount of time for half of a
sample of a radioactive element to decay
into something else
– Can range from a fraction of a second to
billions of years
– Amount remaining=initial amount(1/2)t/T
• t=total time
• T=half-life
 Half-life

mf  m ( ) 1 n
i 2

mf: final mass

mi: initial mass
n: # of half-lives
 Half-life
• Fluorine-21 has a half-life of 5.0 seconds. If you
start with 25 g of fluorine-21, how many grams
would remain after 60.0 s?
 Nuclear Decay
• Alpha Emission
238
92 U 234
90Th  He 4
2

parent daughter alpha

nuclide nuclide particle
Numbers must balance!!
 Nuclear Decay
• Beta Emission
131
53 I 131
54 Xe  e
0
-1

electron
• Positron Emission
38
19 K  Ar  e
38
18
0
1

positron
 Nuclear Decay
• Electron Capture
106
47 Ag  e 
0
-1
106
46 Pd
electron
• Gamma Emission
– Usually follows other types of decay.
 Types of Transmutation
• Induced transmutation
– Nucleus of an unstable isotope (radionuclide)
is struck with a high velocity charged particle
• Particle accelerator
• Need lots of energy and unstable nucleus
– Elements atomic 93 and higher (transuranium
elements)
• Natural transmutation
– Occurs naturally as a radioisotope decays to
become more stable
 Basic Assessment Questions
Topic
26 Question 1
What element is formed when polonium-214
( ) radioisotope undergoes alpha decay?
Give the atomic number and mass number of
the element.
 Basic Assessment Questions
Topic
26 Question 2
What element is formed when undergoes
beta decay? Give the atomic number and mass
number of the element.
 Basic Assessment Questions
Topic
26 Question 4
Write a balanced nuclear equation for the
beta decay of the following radioisotope.
 Nuclear Fission
• Fission = divide
• Neutron hits an unstable atom
• Nucleus splits into two fragments of about
the same mass
– Some single neutrons are released (energy)
– These neutrons can smash into other atoms
• Causes a chain reaction
Fission Reaction
 Nuclear reactors

• Nuclear power plants use

the process of nuclear
fission to produce heat in
nuclear reactors.

• The heat is used to

generate steam, which is
then used to drive turbines
that produce electricity.
Atomic Bomb- uncontrolled fission reactions
• Little Boy: $2billion in research; made of
Uranium-235; equal to 20,000 tons of TNT;
140,000 people died; 2/3 of the city destroyed
• Fat Man: Plutonium-239; 70,000 people died;
40% of the city destroyed
 Hydrogen Bomb
• 1000 times more powerful than atomic
bomb
• March 1, 1954; Bikini Atoll in Pacific
– Never in war
• Fission reaction triggers fusion of
Hydrogen isotopes
 Nuclear Fusion
• Opposite of fission
• Two nuclei fuse together to form one
nucleus with a larger mass
– Not simple sum of masses
– Some mass lost as energy
• Requires high temperature:
Thermonuclear reaction
• Occurs in the sun and stars
– 4 H combine to form one He, 2e- and energy
Nuclear Fusion
Solar Flare
 Radiation Detectors
• Cloud Chamber
– supersaturated water or ethanol
– radioactive particle flows through
and knocks e- off
– vapor condenses showing path
– alpha: short/thick trails; beta:
long/thin
• Bubble Chamber
– superheated liquid
– e- knocked off again
– bubbles are formed
Measuring Radiation
• Geiger Counter
– produces electric
current when near
radiation
– Results in clicks or a
digital reading
 Using Nuclear Reactions in
Medicine
• Tracers: monitor body
processes
– Iodine-131
• emits beta particles
• used to detect tumors in
thyroid gland
– also used: Carbon-11
and Sodium -24
• Cancer Treatment
• damage cancer cells
• Gold -198 or Iridium -192 -- implanted in or
near tumor
• Cobalt-60
– outside body
– emits gamma rays
• Positron Emission
Tomography (PET)
– Fluorine-18 attached to
molecules that go to brain
– positrons are emitted and collide
with electrons forming 2 gamma
rays
– the gamma rays are detected
and indicate brain activity
• http://www.hpwt.de/Kern2e.htm
• http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000/isot
opes/radioactive_decay3.html
• http://www.msd.k12.or.us/schools/mhs/proj
ects/Fission/frames.html
• http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/e
xperience/the.bomb/history.science/