5.1.

Intorduction
 So far our analysis has been limited for the dc
circuits. circuits excited by constant or time-
invariant sources.
 We now begin the analysis of circuits with time-
varying sources (voltage or current ).
 or simply, excitation by a sinusoid.
 A sinusoid is a signal in form of the sine or
cosine function.
 Circuits driven by sinusoidal current or voltage
sources are called ac circuits.
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Sinusoids
 General expression for a sinusoidal forcing
function (for voltage or current )

𝒙 𝒕 = 𝒙𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽)
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Sinusoids
Where
𝑥𝑚 = amplitude or peak value
𝜔=the angular frequency in radians/s
2𝜋
𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑓 =
𝑇
𝜔𝑡= the argument of the sinusoid
𝜃=phase angle in degree.
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
A periodic function is one that satisfies v(t) = v(t + nT), for
all t and for all integers n.

2
T

f
1
Hz   2f
T

• Only two sinusoidal values with the same frequency can be

compared by their amplitude and phase difference.
• If phase difference is zero, they are in phase; if phase
difference is not zero, they are out of phase.
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Sinusoids
Example :Find the amplitude, phase, period,
and frequency of the sinusoid voltage .
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Sinusoids
 Let periodic function x(t) with a period T
> the average (DC ) value of the function is
𝑻
𝟏 𝑻 𝟏 𝟐
𝒙𝒂𝒗 = 𝒙𝑫𝑪 = න 𝒙(𝒕)𝒅𝒕 = න 𝒙(𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝟎 𝑻 −𝑻
𝟐
> RMS value also called effective value is
𝟏 𝑻 𝟐
𝒙𝒓𝒎𝒔 = න 𝒙 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝟎
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Sinusoids
For a sinusoidal signal 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
> the average (DC ) value of the function is zero
𝟏 𝑻
𝒙𝒂𝒗 = න 𝒙𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽)𝒅𝒕 = 𝟎
𝑻 𝟎
> RMS value also called effective value is
𝟏 𝑻
𝒙𝒓𝒎𝒔 = න (𝒙𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + 𝜽))𝟐 (𝒕)𝒅𝒕
𝑻 𝟎
𝒙𝒎
= = 𝟎. 𝟕𝟎𝟕𝒙𝒎
𝟐
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Sinusoids
Therefore for a sinusoidal current and voltage
sources
𝑣𝑎𝑣 = 𝑖𝑎𝑣 = 0
𝑽𝒎
𝒗𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐
𝒂𝒏𝒅
𝑰𝒎
𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔 =
𝟐
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Sinusoids
Some trigonometric functions to remind
you for this chapter
A graphical approach may be used to
relate or compare sinusoids as an
alternative to using the trigonometric
identities.
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Phasor
 Sinusoids are easily expressed in terms of
phasors
 phasor :complex number that represents the
amplitude and phase of a sinusoid.
 provide a simple means of analyzing circuits
excited by sinusoidal sources.
 Before phasors are applied to circuit analysis, let
us be familiar with complex numbers.
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Phasor
 A complex number Z can be written
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Phasor
Where
 𝑗 = −1; x is the real part of Z; y is the
imaginary part of Z
 r is the magnitude of z, and ∅ is the phase of z.

phasor diagram
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Phasor
Given the complex numbers

The following operations are important

 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Phasor
phasor representation is based on Euler’s identity

 Let us consider a sinusoidal signal

 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Phasor
 Equivalently the above equation can be written as

𝒗 𝒕 = 𝑹𝒆 𝑽𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + ∅) + 𝒋𝑽𝒎 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝝎𝒕 + ∅)

𝑣 𝑡 = 𝑅𝑒(𝑽𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 )
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Phasor

 where 𝑽 = 𝑉𝑚 𝑒 𝑗∅ is called phasor

representation of the sinusoid signal v(t),
 Therefore the phasor representation of any
sinusoidal signal 𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑥𝑚 cos(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃) is;
Phasor
5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
 We can transform the sinusoid from the time
domain to the phasor domain

• Amplitude and phase difference are two principal concerns in

the study of voltage and current sinusoids.
• Phasor will be defined from the cosine function in all our
proceeding study. If a voltage or current expression is in the
form of a sine, it will be changed to a cosine by subtracting from
the phase.
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Phasor
Example 1:
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Phasor
Example 2:
 5.2. Sinusoidal and phasor
Phasor
• The frequency (or time) factor 𝑒 𝑗𝜔𝑡 is suppressed, and the
frequency is not explicitly shown in the phasor domain
representation because 𝜔is constant. However, the response
depends on 𝜔. For this reason, the phasor domain is also known
as the frequency domain.
 5.3. Phasor relationships for circuit
elements
Pure resistor circuit

 consider the pure resistive circuit shown below

let
𝑣 𝑡 𝑉𝑚 cos( 𝜔𝑡+∅)
𝑖 𝑡 = =
𝑅 𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝑖 𝑡 = cos( 𝜔𝑡 + ∅)
𝑅
𝒊 𝒕 = 𝐈𝒎 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝝎𝒕 + ∅)
𝑽𝒎
 In phasor form 𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎 ∠∅ 𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 ∠∅ = ∠∅
𝑹
 5.3. Phasor relationships for circuit
elements
Pure resistor circuit

 Similarly in time domain relation

Phasor diagram for the resistor Time domain graph

 5.3. Phasor relationships for circuit
elements
Pure resistor circuit
From the above phasor and time-domain graph
 the phase angle between the voltage and
the current is zero,
 hence in this circuit the voltage and the
current are in phase.
For a purely resistive element, the voltage
and the current are in phase
 5.3. Phasor relationships for circuit
elements
Pure resistor circuit
Example
The current through a 5-Ω resistor is
i (t)= 40 sin(377t +30°).
Find the sinusoidal expression for the voltage across
the resistor.
Solution
 5.3. Phasor relationships for circuit
elements
Pure inductor circuit
 Consider the pure indicative circuit below

Where 𝑽𝒎 = 𝒙𝑳 𝑰𝒎 is the voltage amplitude in volt and

𝑽𝒎
𝒙𝑳 = 𝝎𝑳 = Is the reactance in ohm.
𝑰𝒎
 5.3. Phasor relationships for circuit
elements
Pure inductor circuit
In phasor form
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎 ∠ ∅ + 𝟗𝟎° = 𝝎𝑳𝑰𝒎 ∠ ∅ + 𝟗𝟎°
𝑽𝒎
𝒂𝒏𝒅 𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 ∠∅ = ∠∅
𝝎𝑳
 5.3. Phasor relationships for circuit
elements
Pure inductor circuit
 the voltage and the current are 900 out
of phase
 the voltage leads the current by 90 0
 current lags behind voltage by 900
Example
The current through a 0.1-H coil is i(t) =7 sin(377t 70°)
Find the sinusoidal expression for the voltage across the
coil. Sketch the v(t) and i(t) curves.
 5.3. Phasor relationships for circuit
elements
Pure capacitor circuit
Consider the pure capacitive circuit below
 5.3. Phasor relationships for circuit
elements
Pure capacitor circuit
In phasor form
𝑽 = 𝑽𝒎 ∠∅
𝑰 = 𝑰𝒎 ∠ ∅ + 𝟗𝟎° = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 ∠ ∅ + 𝟗𝟎°
 5.3. Phasor relationships for circuit
elements
Pure capacitor circuit
Therefore,
 voltage and current are 900 out of phase
 the current leads the voltage by 90 0
 the voltage lags the current by 900 .
Generally:
 5.4. Impedance and admittance
Impedance
 The impedance Z of a circuit is the ratio of
the phasor voltage V to the phasor current
I, measured in ohms
 the impedance may be expressed in
rectangular form as
 5.4. Impedance and admittance
Impedance
 The impedance may also be expressed in
polar form as:
 5.4. Impedance and admittance
Admittance
 sometimes convenient to work with the
reciprocal of impedance, which is called
admittance
 admittance Y is the reciprocal of
impedance, measured in Siemens (S).
 5.4. Impedance and admittance
Generally ;
Impedances and admittances of passive
elements are ;
 5.4. Impedance and admittance
Therefore KVL and KCL are both valid in the frequency
domain (phasor)
 if impedances 𝑍1 , 𝑍2 , 𝑍3 . . . 𝑍𝑁 are connected in series
 we can apply the KCL laws and other theorems to
directly set up phasor equations involving our target
variable(s) for solving.
 5.4. Impedance and admittance
 if impedances 𝑍1 , 𝑍2 , 𝑍3 . . . 𝑍𝑁 are
connected in parallel
 5.4. Impedance and admittance
 The following principles used for DC circuit
analysis all apply to AC circuit. For example:
 voltage division
 current division
 circuit reduction
 impedance equivalence
 Y-Δ transformation
 Other techniques such as nodal and mesh
analysis and theorems.
 5.4. Impedance and admittance
Example 1:
Find the input impedance of the circuit
this figure. Assume that the circuit
operates at ω=50 rad/s.
5.4. Impedance and admittance
Solution:
5.4. Impedance and admittance
Example 2:
5.4. Impedance and admittance
solution:
 5.5. SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT
 Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which
the capacitive and inductive reactance are equal in
magnitude, thereby resulting in purely resistive
impedance.
 5.5. SERIES RESONANT CIRCUIT
The frequency response of the circuit’s current Half Power Frequencies

magnitude Dissipated power is half of the

maximum value.

Z (1 )  Z (2 )  R 2  ( L  1 )2  2 R
V C
VL  m o L  QVm  Vm 
2
R  
V 1 o L 1 P(1 )  P (2 )   2
VC  m  QVm Q  2R
R oC R oCR 2 2
R  R  1 R  R  1
1       ,  2      
2L  2L  LC 2L  2L  LC
 Selectivity
 The frequencies corresponding to 0.707 of the maximum current are
called the band frequencies, cutoff frequencies, or half-power
frequencies (ƒ1, ƒ2).
 Half-power frequencies are those frequencies at which the power
delivered is one-half that delivered at resonant frequency.
 The range of frequencies between the two are referred to as
bandwidth (abbreviated BW) of the resonant circuit.
 Since the resonant circuit is adjusted to select a band of frequencies
it is called a selectivity curve.
 The shape of the curve depends on each element of the series R-L-C
circuit.
 If resistance is made smaller with a fixed inductance and capacitance,
the bandwidth decreases and the selectivity increases.
 If the ratio L/C increases with fixed resistance, the bandwidth again
decreases with an increase in selectivity.
 BANDWIDTH OF SERIES RESONANCE
 The width of the response is measured by the BANDWIDTH.
 BANDWIDTH is the difference between the half-power
frequencies.
B  2  1

 Resonance frequency can be obtained from the half-power

frequencies.
o  12 , B  2  1

 The SHARPNESS of the resonance is measured by the QUALITY

FACTOR.
 QUALITY FACTOR is the ratio of the resonance frequency to the
bandwidth. The higher the Q the smaller is the bandwidth. o
Q
B
QUALITY FACTOR OF SERIES RESONANCE

o
Q
B

Peak Energy Stored

Q  2
Energy Dissipated in one Period at Resonance
 L 1
Q o 
R  o RC

o L 1
Q 
R o RC
R o
B 
L Q
B B
1  o  ,  2   o 
2 2
Effect on Selectivity of R, L, C for Series Resonance

Effect of R on selectivity

Effect of L and C on selectivity

 5.5. Parallel resonance circuit
 Resonance is a condition in an RLC circuit in which the capacitive and inductive
reactances are equal in magnitude, resulting in a purely resistive impedance.
 Parallel resonance circuit behaves similarly but in opposite fashion compared to
series resonant circuit.
 The admitance is minimum at resonance or impedance is maximum.

1
o 
LC

Parallel resonant circuit.

I 1 1 1  1 
Y  H ( )    jC    j  C 
V R j L R   L 
Resonance occurs when admitance is purely resistive
1 1 1
Im(Y )   L   0  o L  o  rad/sec
C oC LC
 PARALLEL RESONANCE

 At Resonance frequency:
1) Admitance is purely resistive.
2) The voltage and current are in phase.
3) The transfer function H()= Y() is Minimum.
4) Inductor and capacitor currents can be much more than the source current.

Im R
IL   QI m I C  oCI m R  QVm
o L
 PARALLEL RESONANCE

Im
VV 
2
1
   ( C  1 )2
L
R

Voltage versus frequency for the parallel resonant circuit.

 The half-power frequencies can be obtained as:
2
1  1  1
1      
2 RC  2 RC  LC
2
1  1  1
2      
2 RC  2 RC  LC
1
o  1 2 , B   2  1 
RC
Summary of series and parallel resonance circuits:
Characteristic Series circuit Parallel circuit
ωo 1 1
LC LC
Q ωo L 1 R
or or o RC
R ωo RC o L

B o o
Q Q

ω1, ω2 1 2 o 1 2 
o 1  ( )  o 1  ( )  o
2Q 2Q 2Q 2Q

Q ≥ 10, ω1, ω2 o 
B
o 
B
2 2
 5.6. Steady state ac analysis
 The circuit analysis techniques such
 nodal analysis,
 mesh analysis,
 superposition, source transformation,
 thevenin and Norton theorem
are also applicable to AC steady state circuit
analysis.
 5.6. Steady state ac analysis
 Analyzing ac circuits usually requires three steps.
 Transform the circuit to the phasor or frequency
domain.
 Solve the problem using circuit techniques (nodal
analysis, mesh analysis, superposition, etc.)
 Transform the resulting phasor to the time
domain.

Time to Freq Solve Freq to Time

variables in Freq
 5.6. 1. Nodal Analysis Nodal analysis
Example 1: Nodal analysis
Find ix in the circuit using nodal analysis.
Cont’d…
 5.6.2. Mesh analysis
Example 2: Mesh analysis
Determine current Io using mesh analysis
Cont’d…
 Mesh Analysis
Example
• Solve for Vo in the circuit of Fig. below using mesh analysis.

Meshes 3 and 4 form a super mesh due to the current source between the meshes.
For mesh 1:KVL

Eq 1

For mesh 2,

Eq 2

60
 Cont’d…

• For the supermesh,

Eq 3

• Due to the current source between meshes 3 and 4, at node A,

Eq 4

• Instead of solving the above four equations, we reduce them to two by

elimination.

• Combining Eqs. (1) and (2), Eq 5

• Combining Eqs. (2) and (4), Eq 6

61
 Cont’d…
• Putting in the matrix form

• We obtain the following determinants

62
5.6.3 Superposition Theorem (1)
When a circuit has sources operating at different frequencies,
• The separate phasor circuit for each frequency must be solved
independently, and
• The total response is the sum of time-domain responses of all the
individual phasor circuits.
Example
Calculate vo in the circuit of figure shown below using the superposition theorem.

63
Cont’d…
• So we let v0 = v1 + v2 + v3

• v1-due to 5V dc, v2 -due to 10cos2t V and v3 -due to 2sin5t

• To find v1, we set to zero all sources except the 5-V dc source
and replace the capacitor as open circuit, and the inductor as
short circuit at steady state.

64
Cont’d
• To find v2 ,we set to zero both the 5-V source and the current source and
transform the circuit to the frequency domain.

• Let

• By voltage division,

65
Cont’d…
• To obtain v3,we set the voltage sources to zero and transform what is left
to the frequency domain.

• Let
• By current division,

• v0 = v1 + v2 + v3

66
 5.6.4 Source Transformation (1)

Example
Find Vx in the circuit of figure below using the concept
of source transformation.

67
Cont’d…
We transform the voltage source to a current source

The parallel combination of 5Ω resistance

and (3+j4) impedance gives

Converting the current source to a

voltage source

By voltage division,

68
5.6.5 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits (1)

Thévenin transform

Norton transform

69
5.6.5 Thévenin and Norton Equivalent Circuits (2)

Example
Find the Thévenin and Norton equivalent at terminals a–b of the
circuit below.

70
5.7.6 Maximum Average Power Transfer (1)
ZTH  R TH  j XTH
ZL  R L  j XL
The maximum average power
can be transferred to the load if

XL = –XTH and RL = RTH

2
VTH
Pmax 
8 R TH

𝑑𝑝
= 0, ⇒ 𝑋𝐿 = −𝑋𝑡ℎ
𝑑𝑋𝐿
𝑑𝑝
= 0, ⇒ 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ 2 + 𝑋𝐿 2 + 𝑋𝑡ℎ 2 , ⇒ 𝑅𝐿 = 𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑑𝑅𝐿

If the load is purely real, then R L  2

R TH  XTH
2
 ZTH
71
Cont’d…
Example
For the circuit shown below, find the load impedance ZL that
absorbs the maximum average power. Calculate that maximum
average power.

72
Cont’d…

The load impedance draws the maximum power from the

circuit when

The maximum average power is

73
 5.7. Power in ac circuit
Introduction
 Power is the most important quantity
 in electric utilities,
 electronic, and
 communication systems
 every industrial and household electrical device
every fan, motor, lamp, pressing iron, TV,
personal computer—has a power rating
 exceeding the power rating can do permanent
damage to an appliance.
 Cont’d…

So be careful with the

power rating of the devices
!
 Cont’d…
Instantaneous power
 Consider a linear circuit shown below
The instantaneous power p(t ) is

But
 Cont’d…
Average power
 The average power is the average of the
instantaneous power over one period.
 Cont’d…
Average power
 The average power in terms of the RMS values
1. P is not time dependent.
2. When θv = θi , it is a purely
resistive load case.
3. When θv– θi = ±90o, it is a
purely reactive load case.
4. P = 0 means that the circuit
absorbs no average power.
 Cont’d…
complex power
 The complex power delivered to the element is
defined to be
 Cont’d…
complex power
The magnitude of the complex power
1
𝑆 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑽𝒓𝒎𝒔 . 𝑰𝒓𝒎𝒔
2
is called apparent power its unit is volt-
amp (VA).
 Cont’d…
complex power
 The complex power in rectangular form is

Where:
1
P= 𝑺𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 average
2
power , active power or real power .its unit is watt.
1
𝑸 = 𝑺𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊
2
reactive power or wattless power ,and is measured
in reactive volt-Amperes (VAR).
 Cont’d…
complex power
 The complex power may be expressed in terms of
the load impedance Z
 Cont’d…
complex power
 the ratio of the average power to the apparent
power is called the power factor (pf)

 therefore average power absorbed by the

element can be expressed as
𝟏
𝑷 = 𝑽𝒎 𝑰𝒎 . 𝒑𝒇
𝟐
 The angle 𝜽𝒗 − 𝜽𝒊 is called the power factor angle
Cont’d…
Example1
 5.8. Power factor
 Power factor is a measure of how efficiently
electrical power is consumed

Purely resistive load (R) θv– θi = 0, Pf = 1 P/S = 1, all power are consumed

Purely reactive load (L θv– θi = ±90o, pf = 0 P = 0, no real power consumption

or C)

Resistive and reactive θv– θi > 0 • Lagging - inductive load

load (R and L/C) θv– θi < 0 • Leading - capacitive load
 Cont’d…
Case of low power factor:
Low power factor is caused mainly by induction motors also by
inductive loads, such as transformers and magnetic lighting ballasts.
Disadvantage of low power factor:
When you have a power factor less than unity the voltage and current
waves in an AC circuit are out of phase, this reduces the wattage at
any instant of time.

It is clear from above that for fixed power and voltage, the load
current is inversely proportional to the power factor.
Lower the power factor, higher is the load current and vice-versa. A
power factor less than unity results in the following disadvantages :
 Cont’d…
Low power factor have the following disadvantage
1. Large KVA rating of equipment:
2. Greater conductor size :
3. Large copper losses :
4. poor voltage regulation
5. Reduced handling capacity of electrical system.
 Cont’d…
1. Large KVA rating of equipment:
 The electrical machinery (example: alternatives,
transformers, switchgear) is always rated in KVA.

 It is clear that KVA rating of the equipment is

inversely proportional to the power factor
 the smaller the power factor, the larger is the KVA
rating
 Therefore this makes the equipment large and
expensive.
 This causes losses in the machine, as well as increase
the running cost of the whole plant
 Cont’d…
2. Greater conductor size :
 To transmit or distribute a fixed amount of power at a
constant voltage, the conductor will have to carry more
current at low power factor. This necessitates large
conductor size.
 For example, take the case of a single phase a.c. motor having an
input of 10 kW on full load, the terminal voltage being 250 V. At
unity p.f., the input full load current would be 10,000/250 = 40 A. At
0·8 p.f; the kVA input would be 10/0·8 = 12·5 and the current input
12,500/250 = 50 A. If the motor is worked at a low power factor of
0·8, the cross-sectional area of the supply cables and motor
conductors would have to be based upon a current of 50 A instead
of 40 A which would be required at unity power factor.
 Cont’d…
3. Large copper losses :
 The larger current at low power factor causes more I2R
losses in all the elements of the supply systems, this
results in poor efficiency.
4. Poor voltage regulation:
 The large current at low lagging power factor causes
greater voltage drops in alternators, transformers,
transmission lines and distributors.
 This results in the decreased voltage available at the
supply end, thus impairing the performance of utilisation
devices.
 In order to keep the receiving end voltage within
permissible limits, extra equipment (i.e., voltage
regulators) is required.
 Cont’d…
5. Reduced handling capacity of electrical system.
 The lagging power factor reduces the handling capacity of
all the elements of the system.
 It is because the reactive component of current prevents
the full utilisation of installed capacity.
 The above discussion leads to the conclusion that low
power factor is an objectionable feature in the supply
system
 Most electrical supply authorities have changed to kVA
demand systems from the inefficient kW demand system.
 Consumers are now billed and penalized for their
inefficient systems according to the apparent power being
used. In future, consumers will be penalised for plants with
power factor below a pre-determined value.
 5.8.1 Power factor correction
 We have to increase or correct a low power
factor Due to the disadvantages listed previously.
 The process of increasing the power factor
without altering the voltage or current to the
original load is known as power factor correction
 load’s power factor is improved by installing a
capacitor in parallel with the load,
 Cont’d…
 Consider the power triangle after power factor correction :

Q c = Q1 – Q 2
= P (tan θ1 - tan θ2)
= ωCV2rms

Qc P (tan θ1  tan θ 2 )
C  
ωVrms
2
ω Vrms
2

Q1 = S1 sin θ1
= P tan θ1 For a capacitor
𝑍 ∗ = −1Τ𝑗𝜔𝑐
P = S1 cos θ1 Q2 = P tan θ2 𝑆𝑐𝑎𝑝 = 𝑄𝑐𝑎𝑝 = −𝑗𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 2
 Cont’d…
Example
When connected to a 120-V (rms), 60-Hz power line, a load absorbs
4 kW at a lagging power factor of 0.8. Find the value of capacitance
necessary to raise the pf to 0.95.

• For pf =0.8

• We obtain the apparent power from the real power and the pf as

• The reactive power is

• When the pf is raised to 0.95,

94
Cont’d…
• The real power P has not changed. But the apparent power has changed; its
new value is

• The new reactive power is

• The difference between the new and old reactive powers is due to the parallel
addition of the capacitor to the load. The reactive power due to the capacitor is

95
THANk YOU