STATISTICAL TOOLS

IN RESEARCH
Statistics are like bikinis. What
they reveal is suggestive, but
what they conceal is vital.

- Aaron Levenstein
 STATISTICS involves the
systematic collection,
presentation, analysis and
interpretation of data.
Raw Data
Importance
Few of Statistics
Meaningful in Research
Numbers

Statistical
Conclusion

Solution to
the Problem
LOOK AT THESE
RESEARCH
STUDIES
 A researcher tested the presence of significant difference
between the antibacterial efficacy of Makabuhay Leaf Extract
against P. aeruginosa as compared to Chloramphenicol in terms
of Antibacterial Index (AI). The data are as follows:

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Average

T1
(Makabuhay Plant 2.3 1.9 2.2 2.0 2.1 2.10
Extract)

T2 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.38

(Chloramphenicol)
A researcher tested the effect of Chico Bark Decoction (CBD) on
blood sugar level of Albino Mice. Eight experimental units were
used as samples. They served as both the experimental and
control groups. Blood sugar levels were taken a week after
observation without CBD and another week with CBD.

A B C D E F G H Ave
With CBD 3.25 3.22 3.67 3.53 3.76 3.39 3.55 3.41 3.47
(mmol/L)
Without CBD 3.11 3.23 4.02 4.11 3.47 4.21 4.11 4.27 3.82
(mmol/L)
A researcher tested the Cytotoxicity of Leaf Extract of Bignay and
Lumboy Leaves as compared to Phenol using Brine Shrimp
Lethality Assay. The results are as follows (in terms of number of
dead brine shrimp larvae after 24 hours of contact time)

Treatment R1 R2 R3 Ave
Bignay Leaves 24 18 25 22.33
Lumboy Leaves 21 21 17 19.67
Phenol 25 28 27 26.67
A researcher tested the Cytotoxicity of different concentrations of
Lumboy Leaves Extract as compared to Phenol using Brine
Shrimp Lethality Assay. The results are as follows (in terms of
number of dead brine shrimp larvae after 24 hours of contact
time)

Treatment R1 R2 R3 Ave
25% Lumboy Leaves Ext. 19 22 22 21.00
50% Lumboy Leaves Ext. 23 26 23 24.00
75% Lumboy Leaves Ext. 25 27 26 26.00
Phenol 27 28 29 28.00
 A researcher tested if there is a significant interaction
between types of plant and the kind of extractant used.
Lumboy and Bignay Leaf Extracts were assessed with
Ethanol and Methanol as extractants using Brine Shrimp
Lethality Assay, the results are as follows.

Ethanol Methanol
Bignay Leaves 24 24 R1
26 20 R2
25 21 R3
Lumboy Leaves 27 22 R1
26 21 R2
26 19 R3
HYPOTHESIS
TESTING
Hypothesis testing, is a decision-making process for
evaluating claims about a population.

In hypothesis testing, the researcher must define

the population under study, state the particular
hypotheses that will be investigated, give
the significance level, select a sample from the
population, collect the data, perform the
calculations required for the statistical test, and reach
a conclusion.
What are the steps in
Hypothesis Testing?
STEP 1:

State your statistical hypothesis

STEP 2:

Selects the correct statistical test

and an appropriate level of
significance.
 Typical Statistical Tests Used
in Conducting Research

1. Dependent t-test

2. Independent t-test

3. One-Way Analysis of Variance

4. Two-Factor Analysis of Variance

DEPENDENT
t - Test
 Dependent t-test

The dependent t-test (also called the

paired t-test or paired-samples t-test)
compares the means of two related
groups to determine whether there is a
statistically significant difference
between these means.
 When are samples correlated?
Two groups are correlated (dependent) if:

a) The same samples are observed before and after

introduction of independent variable

b) The same sample is both the experimental and control

groups

c) Each experimental unit is assigned to only one

condition.
INDEPENDENT
t - Test
 Independent t - Test
The independent t-test, also called the two
sample t-test, independent-samples t-test or
student's t-test, is a statistical test that determines
whether there is a statistically significant
difference between the means in two unrelated
groups.
 One-Way
Analysis of Variance
 One-Way Analysis of
Variance
The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA)
is used to determine whether there are any
statistically significant differences between
the means of three or more independent
(unrelated) groups.
Two-Way Analysis of
Variance
 Two-Way Analysis of
Variance
The two-way ANOVA compares the mean
differences between groups that have been split
on two independent variables (called factors).
The primary purpose of a two-way ANOVA is to
understand if there is an interaction between the
two independent variables on the dependent
variable.
 LEVEL of
SIGNIFICANCE
In the hypothesis-testing situation, there
are four possible outcomes. In reality, the
null hypothesis may or may not be true,
and a decision is made to reject or not
reject it on the basis of the data obtained
from a sample.
 Ho is Ho is
TRUE FALSE

Type I Correct
Reject Ho Error Rejection

Fail to Correct Type II

Reject Ho Decision Error
LEVEL of SIGNIFICANCE
 Statisticians generally agree on using three
arbitrary significance levels: the 0.10, 0.05, and
0.01 levels. That is, if the null hypothesis is
rejected, the probability of a type I error will
be 10%, 5%, or 1%, depending on which level
of significance is used.
STEP 3:

After a significance level is

chosen, a critical value is
selected from a table for the
appropriate test.
Critical value

The critical value separates the

critical region from the noncritical
region.
The critical or rejection region is the range of values of
the test value that indicates that there is a significant
difference and that the null hypothesis should be
rejected.

The noncritical or non-rejection region is the range of

values of the test value that indicates that the difference
was probably due to chance and that the null
hypothesis should not be rejected.
The critical value for each appropriate
type of statistical test depends on the
Level of Significance and the Degree
of Freedom.
Degree of Freedom

Degrees of freedom are the number

of values in a study that have the
freedom to vary.
Degree of Freedom

a) t-test for dependent samples: df = n – 1

b) t – test for independent samples: df = n1 + n2 – 2

Degree of Freedom

One-Way ANOVA:

• df (bt) = t – 1
• df (wt) = t (r – 1)
Degree of Freedom

Two-Way ANOVA:

• df (A) = a – 1
• df (B) = b – 1
• df (interaction) = (a – 1) (b – 1)
• dt (wt) = ab (r – 1)
STEP 4:

Compute for the statistical value

or the calculated value of the
statistical test.
STEP 5:

Locate whether the calculated

value is in the region of
acceptance or region of rejection.
Then make a conclusion.
 Accept the Null
Hypothesis

Reject the Null

Hypothesis
SPECIFIC
EXAMPLE
 A researcher tested the presence of significant difference
between the antibacterial efficacy of Makabuhay Leaf Extract
against P. aeruginosa as compared to Chloramphenicol in terms
of Antibacterial Index (AI). The data are as follows:

R1 R2 R3 R4 R5 Average

T1
(Makabuhay Plant 2.3 1.9 2.2 2.0 2.1 2.10
Extract)

T2 2.6 2.4 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.28

(Chloramphenicol)
 T1 T12 T2 T22
R1 2.30 5.29 2.6 6.76
R2 1.90 3.61 2.4 5.76
R3 2.20 4.84 2.4 5.76
R4 2.00 4.00 2.3 5.29
R5 2.10 4.41 2.2 4.84
Total 10.50 22.15 11.90 28.41

Mean: 2.1 2.38

df
-2.306 2.306
4. Calculated Value: −𝟐.𝟖𝟖𝟕𝟗𝟕𝟗𝟒𝟖𝟗

-2.888 -2.306 2.306

5. Decision and Conclusion:

Since the calculated value of the statistical test lies

on the region of rejection, we reject the null
hypothesis. This means that there is a significant
difference between the antibacterial efficacy of
Makabuhay Plant Extract and Chloramphenicol in
favor of the Control. Therefore the antibacterial
property of Makabuhay plant is not comparable to
that of Chloramphenicol as far as P. aeruginosa is
concerned.
 A researcher tested the effect of Chico Bark Decoction
(CBD) on blood sugar level of Albino Mice. Eight
experimental units were used as samples They served as
both experimental and control group. Blood sugar levels
were taken at the end of 7 day observation.

A B C D E F G H Ave
With CBD 3.25 3.22 3.67 3.53 3.76 3.39 3.55 3.41 3.47
(mmol/L)
Without CBD 3.11 3.23 4.02 4.11 3.47 4.21 4.11 4.27 3.82
(mmol/L)
USING
EXCEL
 With CBD Without CBD
Mean 3.4725 3.81625
Variance 0.036421429 0.219626786
Observations 8 8
df 7
t Stat -2.2197
t Critical two-tail 2.3646
-2.3646 2.3646
4. Calculated Value: -2.2197

-2.2197
-2.3646 2.3646
5. Decision and Conclusion:

Since the calculated value of the statistical test lies

on the region of non-rejection, we accept the null
hypothesis. This means that there is no significant
difference between the sugar level of albino rats
before and after the introduction of Chico Bark
Decoction. Therefore Chico Bark Decoction does not
exhibit blood sugar level lowering effect.
A researcher tested the Cytotoxicity of Leaf Extract of Bignay and
Lumboy Leaves as compared to Phenol using Brine Shrimp
Lethality Assay. The results are as follows (in terms of number of
dead brine shrimp larvae after 24 hours of contact time)

Treatment R1 R2 R3 Ave
T1 - Bignay Leaves 24 18 25 22.33
T2 - Lumboy Leaves 21 21 17 19.67
T3 - Phenol 25 28 27 26.67
Anova: Single Factor

SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
Bignay Leaves 3 67 22.33 14.33
Lumboy Leaves 3 59 19.67 5.33
Phenol 3 80 26.67 2.33

ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F F crit
Between Groups 74.89 2 37.44 5.106 5.143
Within Groups 44.00 6 7.33
Total 118.89 8
1. Hypothesis: T1 = T2, T1 = T3, T2 = T3

3. Degree of freedom:
a) df (bt) = t – 1= 2
b) df (wt) = t (r – 1) = 3 x 2 = 6
Critical Value (2, 6, 0.05) = 5.14
4. Calculated F-value = 5.106

5.106
5.14
5. Decision:

Since the Calculated F-value lies on the region

of acceptance, we accept the Null Hypothesis.
This means that there is No Significant
difference between the cytotoxicity of Bignay
Leaves, Lumboy Leaves and Phenol. Therefore,
in terms of cytotoxic effects, Bignay Leaves
and Lumboy leaves are comparable to Phenol.
A researcher tested the Cytotoxicity of different concentrations of
Lumboy Leaves Extract as compared to Phenol using Brine
Shrimp Lethality Assay. The results are as follows (in terms of
number of dead brine shrimp larvae after 24 hours of contact
time)

Treatment R1 R2 R3 Ave
25% Lumboy Leaves Ext. 19 22 22 21.00
50% Lumboy Leaves Ext. 23 26 23 24.00
75% Lumboy Leaves Ext. 25 27 26 26.00
Phenol 27 28 29 28.00
Anova: Single Factor

SUMMARY
Groups Count Sum Average Variance
25% Lumboy Ext. 3 63 21 3
50% Lumboy Ext. 3 72 24 3
75% Lumboy Ext. 3 78 26 1
Phenol 3 84 28 1

ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F F crit
Between Groups 80.25 3 26.75 13.375 4.066181
Within Groups 16 8 2
Total 96.25 11
1. Hypothesis: T1 = T2 = T3 = T4

3. Degree of freedom:
a) df (bt) = t – 1= 3
b) df (wt) = t (r – 1) = 4 x 2 = 8
Critical Value (3, 8, 0.05) = 4.07
4. Calculated F-value = 13.375

13.375
4.07
5. Decision:

Since the Calculated F-value lies on the region

of rejection, we reject the Null Hypothesis. This
means that there is a Significant difference
between the cytotoxicity of the different
concentrations of Lumboy Leaves Extract and
Phenol.
Between which Treatments
does the Significant
difference exist?
 Post Hoc Analysis
Post hoc tests are designed for situations in
which the researcher has already obtained a
significant omnibus F-test with a factor that
consists of three or more means and additional
exploration of the differences among means is
needed to provide specific information on
which means are significantly different from
each other.
Scheffe Test
 Scheffe Test
1. T1 vs T2

2. T1 vs T3
 Scheffe Test
3. T1 vs T4

4. T2 vs T3
 Scheffe Test
5. T2 vs T4

4. T3 vs T4
 Scheffe Test
Critical Value

F’ = (k – 1)(Fcrit) = (3)(4.07) = 12.21

 Scheffe Test
FS F’ Decision
T1 vs T2 6.75 12.21 Not Significant
T1 vs T3 18.75 12.21 Significant
T1 vs T4 36.75 12.21 Significant
T2 vs T3 3.0 12.21 Not Significant
T2 vs T4 12.0 12.21 Not Significant
T3 vs T4 3.0 12.21 Not Significant
Decision:

Treatment 1 is not comparable with Phenol,

while Treatments 2 and 3 are comparable to
Phenol when it comes to cytotoxicity.
A researcher tested the Cytotoxicity of Lumboy and
Bignay Leaf Extracts using Ethanol and Methanol as
extractants. Using Brine Shrimp Lethality Assay, the
results are as follows

Ethanol Methanol
Bugnay Leaves 24 24 R1
26 20 R2
25 21 R3
Lumboy Leaves 27 22 R1
26 21 R2
26 19 R3
Anova: Two-Factor With Replication

SUMMARY Ethanol Methanol Total

Bugnay
Count 3.00 3.00 6.00
Sum 75.00 65.00 140.00
Average 25.00 21.67 23.33
Variance 1.00 4.33 5.47

Lumboy
Count 3.00 3.00 6.00
Sum 79.00 62.00 141.00
Average 26.33 20.67 23.50
Variance 0.33 2.33 10.70

Total
Count 6.00 6.00
Sum 154.00 127.00
Average 25.67 21.17
Variance 1.07 2.97
 ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F F crit
Type of Plants 0.083 1.00 0.083 0.0417 5.32
Extractant 60.75 1.00 60.75 30.375 5.32
Interaction 4.0833 1.00 4.0833 2.0417 5.32
Within 16.00 8.00 2.00
Total 85.67 11.00
1. Hypothesis:

a) Ho: There is no difference between the means of

dead brine shrimp larvae for two types of plants

b) Ho: There is no different between the means of dead

brine shrimp larvae for two types of extractants.

c) Ho: There is no interaction effect between the types

of plants and types of extractants on the means of
dead brine shrimp larvae.
2. Level of Significance

3. Degree of freedom

a) df (A) = 1
b) df (B) = 1
c) df (Int) = 1
d) df (wt) = 8

Critical Value (1, 8, 0.05) = 5.32

4. Calculated Value: 5.32

ANOVA
Source of Variation SS df MS F F crit
Type of Plants 1.33 1.00 1.33 1.33 5.32
Extractant 75.00 1.00 75.00 75.00 5.32
Interaction 1.33 1.00 1.33 1.33 5.32
Within 8.00 8.00 1.00
Total 85.67 11.00
5. Decision:

a) There is no difference between the means of dead

brine shrimp larvae for two types of plants

b) There is a difference between the means of dead brine

shrimp larvae for two types of extractants

c) There is no interaction effect between the types of

plants and types of extractants on the means of dead
brine shrimp larvae.
THANK
YOU!
 The researcher would like to know which among the plant
extracts tested is comparable with Chloramphenicol in
terms of antibacterial efficacy (zone of inhibition) against E.
coli. The results are as follows:

Treatment R1 R2 R3 Ave.
Bamban Leaf Extract 18 17 15 16.67
Tagbak Leaf Extract 22 21 20 21.00
Duso Leaf Extract 23 25 25 24.33
Chloramphenicol 29 26 24 26.33