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A brief review
Dr. K. Fobelets
Purpose of the course
• Study bipolar devices in more detail
– Diodes and BJTs
– Closer to reality: recombination
– What causes the delays in these devices when
switching?
The most frequently used sentence in
this course will be:
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si
Extrinsic Si Extrinsic Si
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Extrinsic Si B
Si B Si Si Si As Si Si Obtained by doping
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si As
NA ND
p-type n-type
In semiconductors two types of free charged carriers exist: electrons and holes.
Si Si Si
a) Spherical voids in a semiconductor +
Si Si Si Si
b) A positively charged Si atom that has lost its electron
c) A positively charged particle that is the result of quantum mechanics Si Si
Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Si Si
C
The two charged particles describe together the conduction in semiconductors.
Q2: When intrinsic Si is doped with donor atoms, which of the following statements is
correct?
a) n = p = n i = pi
b) n > ni & p < ni
c) n > p > ni
d) p > n > ni
n: electron concentration
p: hole concentration
ni: intrinsic electron concentration
pi: intrinsic hole concentration
B
n > ni & p < ni in an n-type semiconductor.
n-type semiconductor
n = ND
p = ni2/ND
p-type semiconductor
n = ni2/NA
p = NA By heart
The concept of majority carrier and minority carrier is important in semiconductor devices.
Majority carrier is the carrier type in a doped semiconductor with the highest
concentration. Minority carrier is the carrier type with the lowest concentration.
n-type semiconductor
n > p
n n
n-type n-type
electron semiconductor hole semiconductor
concentration concentration
+ E -
J q number of carriers v
J q number of carriers E
Diffusion of carriers due to a carrier
gradient
E(x) Jndrift
Jpdrift
n(x)
Jndiff
p(x) Jpdiff
Motion of free charged carriers in a semiconductor.
a) c)
(b) (d)
+ E - + E -
B
When carriers move in a semiconductor they are scattered along the
way. This means that they will be accelerated by the electric field (in
this case) and then interact with atoms, impurities, other carriers
that makes them lose some of their kinetic energy = scattering.
Therefore the carriers will travel with an average velocity in
amplitude and direction.
v E
e
m
Q6: Solve diffusion processes
p+ n p
p+ n p
Holes
Electrons
p+ n p
p+ n p
Holes Holes
diffusion drift
Electrons Electrons
2. Because an internal electric field is built up across each junction
causing drift of holes/electrons that cancel the diffusion of
.holes/electrons.
Depletion
NA p-Si ND n-Si
Si
Capacitive effect
Capacitive effect
Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si Si B
-
Si Si B Si Si Si As+ Si Si Si
B
- Si Si Si Si + Si Si Si Si
As As
+ E - - E +
- +
As : arsenic atom ionised
B : boron atom ionised
Q8: True - False
Ec
EF
Ev
Ev
e.g.
p-Si – n-Si
p-Si – n-Si – p-Si
p-Si n-Si
e×fn-Si
e×fp-Si
EF
EF
Evac
Evac
p-Si n-Si
e×fn-Si
e×fp-Si
EF
EF
Depleted region on both sides
Evac
e V0 e f p Si fn Si
Evac
p-Si e×fp-Si
n-Si
e×fn-Si
Ec
Ec
EF EF
Ev
Ev
Diffusion and drift can occur at the
A charge packet
same
E
time.
p n
p n
E
V p n
Short PN diode
I DIFFUSION
p n
p n
E
V p n
Short PN diode
I DIFFUSION
p n
p n
E
V p n
Short PN diode
I DIFFUSION
p n
E
V p n
distance
p n
p n
E
p n
p n
Short
p n
Long
Ln Lp
Minority carrier diffusion length
In long semiconductors recombination of
the minority carriers will occur whilst
diffusing
Excess holes, p in an n-type semiconductor will recombine
with the large amount of available electrons.
Loss of both carrier type, but felt most in excess
minority carriers. Remember: the amount of majority carriers is
much larger than the excess.
In long semiconductors recombination of
the minority carriers will occur whilst
diffusing
Excess holes, p in an n-type semiconductor will recombine
with the large amount of available electrons.
Loss of both carrier type, but felt most in excess
minority carriers. Remember: the amount of majority carriers is
much larger than the excess.
Injection of carriers
• Diffusing minority
carriers (e.g. holes)
recombine with majority
carriers (electrons) within
x a diffusion length Lp
Lp
Generation-recombination
• Generation of carriers and recombination is
continuously happening at the same time
such that the equilibrium carrier
concentrations are maintained.
R=G
Charge neutral
Recombination - generation
• In case there is an excess carrier
concentration then the recombination rate R
of the excess, will be larger than its
generation rate, G: R>G
Recombination of e- in p-type n p n p0 n p
U n Rn Gn
semiconductor n n
pn pn0 pn
h+
Recombination of in n-type U p Rp Gp
semiconductor p p
Diffusion, drift and recombination of
carriers
Jp(x) Jp (x+Dx)
A x
x x+Dx
p 1 J p ( x) J p ( x Dx) p
t x x Dx q Dx p
p( x, t ) 1 J p p
Dx 0 :
t q x p
p 1 J p p 2 p p
Dp 2
t q x p x p
p p0 p = bulk defined+ excess concentration
p 2p p
with
Dp ni2
p0 pn0
t x 2
p ND
Solve equation in steady state
p
0
t p
2p p p
2
x 2
D p p L p Diffusion length Dp
contact
x X n p 0
Boundary conditions:
x 0 p Dp 0 Xn x
x
General solution of 2nd
order differential equation: p( x) C1 sinh C2
Lp
Dp x Xn
p( x) sinh
Xn Lp
sinh
Lp
Too complicated
• Short approximation • Long approximation
Xn << Lp Xn >> Lp
Dp x Xn
p( x) sinh
Xn Lp
sinh
Lp
LINEAR EXPONENTIAL
Short semiconductor
• Xn ≤ Lp carriers do not have time to recombine (=∞) !
• Taking linear approximation.
pn(x) pn(x)
Dp NO recombination : variation
of the excess carrier
pn0 concentration linear
pn(x)
pn(x)
Dp x X n
p’n pn(x)=pn0+
exp
exp
X n L p L p
1 exp
Lp
Dp
pn(x)
Dp x X n x
pn(x)=
exp exp Dp exp
X n L p L p Lp
1 exp
Lp
pn(x)
p’n pn(x)=pn0+Dp e-x/Lp
When recombination occurs
Dp
pn(x)
0 Lp ∞ x Imposes pn(Xn)=0
SHORT ↔ LONG
approximation
Lp=200 nm, Xn=20nm Lp=Xn=200nm
pn(x) pn(x)
Correct solution
Exponential solution
Linear solution
Boundary of short
Short
x x
Long
Intermediate
x x
• Calculation of currents in pn diode with
neutral regions larger than the diffusion
length, using the long semiconductor
approximation
→
• Exponential variation of the excess minority
carrier concentration.
Carrier injections: forward bias
e-diff
p n • Carrier injection across
h+diff junction
-wp 0 wn V
n' p n p0 exp
VT
np(-x) pn(x) V
p'n pn0 exp
n’p VT
p’n
• Creates minority carrier
np0 pn0 concentration gradients
-x x
np0=ni2/NA & pp=NA
pn0= ni2/ND & nn=ND
Carrier injections: reverse bias
e-drift
p n • Minority carriers are swept
+
h drift across junction V<0
-wp 0 wn V
n' ' p n p0 exp
VT
np(-x) pn(x) V
p' 'n pn0 exp
VT
np0 pn0
n’’p
p’’n
-x x
• Small amount of minority
carriers → small current
Thus
e-diff
p n
h+diff
-wp 0 wn
np(-x) pn(x)
n’p
Dnp p’n
Dpn
np0
pn0
-x x
( x ) ( x )
pn ( x) Dpn e
Lp
n p ( x) Dn p e Ln
Slope pn
np
Qn
Dnp Dpn Qp
-x 0 0 x
h+
e- Dnp Dpn
-x 0 0 x
-wp wn
In = e A Dn dnp/dx Ip = -e A Dp dpn/dx
= max @ x=0 = max @ x=0
1. Excess carrier concentration gradient
Fill in expression for excess carrier concentration
e- h+
( x)
eV
( x)
eV
pn ( x) pn0 exp 1 e
Lp
n p ( x) n p0 exp 1 e Ln
kT
kT
( x ) ( x )
eV eV
dpn0 exp 1 e
Lp
dn p0 exp 1 e
Ln
In
max
diff eADn kT Ip
max
diff eADp kT
dx
dx
x 0 x 0
I n max
diff
eAn p0 Dn eV
exp 1
I p max
diff
eApn0 D p eV
exp 1
Ln kT Lp kT
In Ip
Changing gradient!
→
Changing diffusion current density
p n
Itot
Ip In
Itot=In + Ip
In Ip
( x) ( x)
In
x
diff
eAnp0 Dn eV
exp 1 e
Ln
Ip
x
diff
eApn0 D p eV
exp 1 e
Lp
Ln kT Lp kT
Ip I
x
drift tot In
x
diff In I
x
drift tot Ip
x
diff
2. Re-supply of recombined excess carriers
-wp 0 wn I
x
np pn
Ip
np = Dnp e-(-x)/Ln
In pn = Dpn e-(x)/Lp
np0 Qn Dnp Dpn
Qp pn0
-x 0 0 x
np pn
Ip
np = Dnp e-(-x)/Ln
In
Dpn pn = Dpn e-(x)/Lp
np0 Qn Dnp
Qp pn0
-x 0 0 x
-wp 0 wn
Charge = area under excess carrier concentration: integrate
-∞ and + ∞ are the contacts: excess charge = 0!
0 ∞
Qn = -e A ∫-∞ np dx Qp = e A ∫0 pn dx
In = Qn/n = e A Ln Dnp /n Ip = Qp/p = e A Lp Dpn /p
Total current
Same equation as short diode with
length exactly equal to the
minority carrier diffusion lengths
• I = I0 (eeV/kT -1)
10
9
8 Error on linear and
7
exponential approximation
same when Xn=Lp
6
Ireal/Iapprox
Ireal/Iexp
5
Ireal/Ilin
4
3
2
1
0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Xn/Lp
• Non-idealities in the pn diodes
Log(I) ideal
real
c)
b)
a)
V
(a) Low voltage: low injection of carriers
Log(I) ideal
real
a)
V
(c) High voltage: high injection of carriers
Log(I) ideal
real
c) n’p ≈ pp
p’n ≈ nn
eV a) n=2
I tot I s e nkT 1 b) n=1
c) n=2
(d) Higher currents
Log(I) ideal
real
d)
Current determined by resistance
V
Switching of p-n diodes
• When a p-n diode is forward biased, excess carrier
concentrations exists at both sides of the depletion region
edge.
• To switch the diode from forward to off or reverse bias,
this excess carrier concentration needs to be removed.
• The transients resulting from the time it takes to remove
the excess carriers will lead to the equivalent capacitance.
np
p pn n
-wp 0 wn
Switching off
e-
h+ i
np on
p pn n Steady state snap shots
off
-wp 0 wn
0 t
p n
To
Howthis?
do we go from this:
p+pno -wp 0 wn
Excess carrier concentration
Dpn
pno
x Off: NO current flows!!!
Variation of the excess carrier concentration
as a function of time.
p(x,t)
p 1 J p p
t q x p
Relationship for charge Qp
contact
p ( x, t ) eA contact J p contact
p
eA t
dx
e 0 x
dx eA
p
dx
0 0
dQp (t ) eA eA Q p (t )
Jp Jp
dt e contact e 0 p
dQp (t ) Q p (t )
Ip
dt p
Transient during switching off
Recombination term
i(t)= I + dQ/dt = Q/ + dQ/dt Charge depletion term (or buildup)
Qp(t)=eA∫p(x,t)dx=Ippe-t/p
p Variation in time
Dpn gradient→ i≠0
i=0→gradient=0
t=0
x
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
i p (t )
p dt
ON-OFF (open circuit)
take: p+n → Itot ≈ Ip
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
p+
vd
n i p (t )
p dt
Ip
V Q p (0 )
@ t 0; i p (0 ) I ON
R p
R
@ t 0; i p (0) 0
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
t=0 0
p dt
V
t
Q p (t ) I ON p exp
p
OFF (open circuit) → ON
take: p+n → Itot ≈ Ip
@ t 0; i p (0 ) 0; Q p (0 ) 0
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
@ t 0 ; i p (0 ) I ON
V i p (t )
R p dt
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
vd I ON
p+ n p dt
dQp (t ) p I ON Q p (t )
Ip
dt p
dQp (t ) dt
Q p (t ) p I ON p integrate
R
ln Q p (t ) p I ON t
0
t
p
t=0
ln Q p (t ) p I ON ln p I ON t
p
V Q p (t ) p I ON
ln t
p I ON p
t
Q p (t ) p I ON p I ON exp p I ON 1 exp t
p p
Reverse recovery transient
Switch the diode from forward to reverse bias
e-
h+ i
np on
p pn n Steady state snap shots
-wp 0 wn e-
0 t h+
off
To this?
How do we go from this:
-wp
p Excess carrier concentration 0 wn
Dpn
Dpn 0 Reverse bias current flows!!!
x
Transients when switching to reverse bias
i(t) R e(t)
If≈E/R I
e(t) E If
t
p n Ir≈-E/R
-E
V
p
If → gradient≠0
-Ir
Ir → gradient≠0 i(t)
t
x v(t)
t
t
-E
Storage delay time: tsd
If i(t)
v(t)
-Ir
tsd
Time required for the stored charge to disappear
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
IF i(t) i p (t )
p dt
v(t) @ t 0 ; i ( 0 ) I F Q (0 ) p I F
t @ t 0 ; i (0 ) I R X
Q(0 ) p I R!
@ t t sd ; Q(t sd ) 0
-IR
0 t t sd i p (t ) I R
tsd Q p (t ) dQp (t )
IR
p dt
Calculated storage delay time: tsd
Q p (t ) dQp (t )
IR
p dt
IF i(t) p I R Q p (t ) dQp (t )
p dt
dt dQp (t )
v(t) p I p R Q p (t ) integrate
t t
ln I (t )
t
Qp
p R 0
p
t
-IR p
ln p I R Q p (t ) ln p I R Q p (0)
tsd
t p I R Q p (t )
exp
p pIR pIF
t
Q p (t ) p I R p I R p I F
exp
p
Calculated storage delay time: tsd
IF i(t)
t
Q p (t ) p I R p I R p I F
exp
p
v(t) t t sd
t t sd
0 p I R p I R p I F exp
p
IR I I F
t sd p ln p ln R
I R I F
-IR
IR
tsd
After: tsd
IF i(t) Q p (t sd ) 0
vd 0
v(t)
t Build-up of
depletion region
tbu RCdepl
-IR vd E
tsd
Small signal equivalent circuit
• Junction capacitance • Diffusion capacitance
w -wp 0 wn
• Cj = e A/w • Cd = dQ/dV = d (I )/dV
= e/kT I
• w function of bias
→ C voltage variable capacitance
Rs
p 2p p
Dp
t x 2
p
Lifetime of minority
carrier holes
Revision
Dp x Xn
p( x) sinh
Xn Lp
sinh
Lp
• Short: Xn ≤ Lp linear
pn(x) pn(x)
Dp
pn0
Dp x X n
pn(x)=pn0+
exp exp
X n L p L p
1 exp
pn(x) Lp
p’n
pn(x)=pn0+Dp e-x/Lp
Dp
pn(x)
pn0
0 Lp ∞ x Imposes pn(Xn)=0
Revision
1000
Series1
Correct
800
Exponential
Series2
600 Linear
Series3
400
200
0
20 40 2004
101 2 3
Xn (nm)