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Nutrition
Figure 21.0_2
OBTAINING
AND PROCESSING
FOOD
Caterpillar
Feces
Figure 21.1C
Figure 21.1D
21.2 Overview: Food processing occurs in four
stages
Food is processed in four stages.
1. Ingestion is the act of eating.
2. Digestion is the breaking down of food into molecules
small enough for the body to absorb.
3. Absorption is the take-up of the products of digestion,
usually by the cells lining the digestive tract.
4. Elimination is the removal of undigested materials out of
the digestive tract.
Pieces Small
of food molecules
Mechanical
digestion
Protein-
digesting
enzymes
Polysaccharide Carbohydrate-
digesting
enzymes
Disaccharide Monosaccharides
Nucleic-acid-
digesting
enzymes
Fat-digesting
enzymes
1 Digestive enzymes
Tentacles being released from
Mouth a gland cell
2 Food digested to
Food small particles
(a water flea)
3 A food particle
Gastrovascular being engulfed
cavity
4 A food particle
digested in a
food vacuole
Figure 21.3B
Earthworm
Mouth
Pharynx
Intestine
Esophagus
Anus
Crop
Gizzard
Grasshopper
Esophagus Midgut
Anus
Mouth
Crop Hindgut
Gastric
pouches
Bird
Stomach
Mouth Gizzard
Intestine
Esophagus
Crop Anus
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE
SYSTEM
Nasal cavity
Oral cavity
A schematic diagram of the (mouth)
human digestive system
Tongue Pharynx
Salivary
Oral glands
Esophagus
cavity Salivary
glands
Esophagus
Liver
Gall-
bladder Esophagus
Stomach
Sphincters
Small
Liver intestine
Gall-
bladder Stomach
Pancreas
Large
intestine Pancreas
Incisors
Canine
Premolars
Molars
“Wisdom”
tooth
Tongue
Salivary
glands
Opening of
a salivary
gland duct
21.6 After swallowing, peristalsis moves food
through the esophagus to the stomach
Air moves from the pharynx,
– into the larynx,
– past the vocal cords in the voice box,
– into the trachea, and
– into the lungs.
During swallowing,
– the tip of the larynx moves upward,
– preventing the food from entering the trachea.
Epiglottis up Esophageal
sphincter
Larynx down
Trachea (windpipe) Esophagus
Starting to swallow
(sphincter contracted)
Figure 21.6A_s2
Esophageal sphincter
(contracted)
Bolus of
food
Muscles contract,
squeezing the bolus
Bolus of through the esophagus.
food
Muscles relax,
allowing the
passageway
to open.
Stomach
21.7 CONNECTION: The Heimlich maneuver can
save lives
The Heimlich maneuver
– involves a forceful elevation of the diaphragm,
– pushes air into the trachea, and
– can dislodge food from the pharynx or trachea during
choking.
Esophagus
Sphincter
Lumen (cavity) Release of gastric juice
of stomach Gastrin (mucus, HCl, and pepsinogen)
Stomach
Sphincter Pits
Epithelium 3
Interior
surface Pepsinogen Pepsin
Small of the 2 (active
intestine stomach Mucous HCl enzyme)
cells 1
Gastric H
gland Cl
Chief cells
Parietal cells
21.9 CONNECTION: Digestive ailments include
acid reflux and gastric ulcers
Acid reflux of chyme in the stomach back into the
esophagus causes the feeling of heartburn.
Gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD) results
from frequent and severe acid reflux that harms the
lining of the esophagus.
Open sores in the lining of the stomach, called
ulcers, may form.
Bacterial infections (Helicobacter pylori) in the
stomach and duodenum can produce ulcers.
Bacteria
Mucous
layer of
stomach
21.10 The small intestine is the major organ of
chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
The small intestine is
– named for its smaller diameter,
– about 6 meters long,
– the site of much chemical digestion, and
– where most nutrients are absorbed.
Liver
Bile
Gall- Stomach
bladder
Chyme
Intestinal
enzymes Pancreatic juice
Duodenum of Pancreas
small intestine
Table 21.10
21.10 The small intestine is the major organ of
chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
The surface area for absorption in the small intestine
is greatly increased by
– folds of the intestinal lining,
– fingerlike projections called villi, and
– tiny projections of the surface of intestinal cells called
microvilli.
Lumen of intestine
Vein carrying Nutrient absorption
blood to the liver
Microvilli
Amino Fatty
Epithelial acids acids
cells and and
sugars glycerol
Muscle Lumen
layers Blood Fats
Large capillaries
circular folds
Lymph Blood
Villi
vessel
Nutrient Lymph
absorption
Epithelial cells of
Villi a villus
Intestinal wall
21.10 The small intestine is the major organ of
chemical digestion and nutrient absorption
Nutrients pass into epithelial cells by
– diffusion and
– against concentration gradients.
Nutrient absorption
Lumen of intestine
Microvilli
Amino Fatty
Epithelial acids acids
cells and and
sugars glycerol
Blood Fats
capillaries
Lymph Blood
vessel
Lymph
Epithelial cells of
Villi a villus
21.11 One of the liver’s many functions is
processing nutrient-laden blood from the
intestines
Blood from the digestive tract drains
– into the hepatic portal vein
– to the liver.
Heart
Liver
Hepatic
portal
vein
Intestines
21.12 The large intestine reclaims water and
compacts the feces
The large intestine, or colon,
– is about 1.5 m long and 5 cm in diameter,
– has a pouch called the cecum near its junction with the
small intestine, which bears a small fingerlike extension,
the appendix,
– contains large populations of E. coli, which produce
important vitamins,
– absorbs these vitamins and water into the bloodstream,
and
– helps form firm feces, which are stored in the rectum until
elimination.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
21.12 The large intestine reclaims water and
compacts the feces
Diarrhea occurs when too little water is reclaimed
from the contents of the large intestine.
Constipation occurs when too much water is
reclaimed.
Large
intestine
(colon)
End of
small
intestine
Small
Unabsorbed intestine
food material
Rectum
Appendix
Cecum Anus
21.13 EVOLUTION CONNECTION:
Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate
digestive systems relate to diet
The length of the digestive tract often correlates
with diet. In general, the alimentary canals relative
to their body size are
– longer in herbivores and omnivores and
– shorter in carnivores.
Stomach
Small intestine
Cecum
Colon
(large
intestine)
Carnivore Herbivore
21.13 EVOLUTION CONNECTION:
Evolutionary adaptations of vertebrate
digestive systems relate to diet
Many herbivores have specializations of the gut
that promote the growth of cellulose-digesting
bacteria and protists because these animals lack
the enzymes needed to digest cellulose in plants.
These mutualistic organisms may be housed in
– the cecum, in a coyote or koala,
– the large intestine and the cecum in rabbits and some
rodents, or
– the stomach of ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and
deer.
© 2012 Pearson Education, Inc.
NUTRITION
Methionine
Valine
(Histidine)
Threonine
Phenylalanine
Leucine
Corn Isoleucine
Tryptophan
Beans
Lysine and other legumes
21.17 A healthy human diet includes 13 vitamins
and many essential minerals
Essential vitamins and minerals are
– required in minute amounts and
– absolutely essential to good health.
Obesity leads to
– type 2 diabetes,
– cancer of the colon and breasts, and
– cardiovascular disease.
64
62
60
510
Height
58
56
54
52
50
410
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260
Weight (pounds)
21.22 CONNECTION: Diet can influence risk of
cardiovascular disease and cancer
A healthy diet may reduce the risk of
– cardiovascular disease and
– cancer.
a.
g.
b.
h.
c.
d. i.
e.
j.
k.
f.
l.
Figure 21.UN03
A healthy
diet
which include
too much needed to build lack
leads to essential
results in fatty acids
molecules
of cells
(e)
(d)
not enough
leads to
(f)
undernutrition
have many
functions,
type of such as
lack
produces
(g)