Lecture 12

Nuclear Physics
 Outline of Lecture 12
• The nucleus
• Isotopes
• Nuclear stability
• Radioactivity
• Half-life and Radioactive Dating
• Induced Nuclear Reactions
• Radiation Damage in Matter
 Mass of whole atom is
the atomic mass Atomic Nucleus

Atoms have
electrons,
protons, and Isotopes have the same atomic
neutrons number Z (same element), but
different mass number A.

atomic mass
atomic e.g. Isotopes of Carbon
number
number
 A   Z   N
Number of protons Number of Number of
and neutrons protons neutrons

The mass
number is not
Mass Number A – the same as the
Number of nucleons atomic mass
(nuclear particles)
eg. Al-27 has
A
Atomic number Z –
Number of protons Z X 13 protons and 14
neutrons
Each atom with a specific Z
Identifies the type of Chemical and A is a nuclide.
chemical or element symbol
 1 u (atomic mass unit) = 1.66 x 10−27 k

Mass and Charge The proton has

a single
The atomic nucleus positive
consists of nucleons – charge, e+
protons and neutrons.
Hydrogen atom
Electrons
includes the
have
The neutron is mass of a
single proton and an
negative neutral : has electron
charge, e- no charge combined
together in a
single atom.
Compositions of Some Common Nuclides
Neutral Atomic Masses for Some light Nuclides
 Example 1
Describe the nucleus of a lithium atom
which has a mass number of 7 and an
atomic number of 3.

A = 7; Z = 3; N = ?

N=A–Z= 7-3

neutrons: N = 4

Protons: Z = 3
7
Electrons: Same as Z Lithium Atom
3 Li
 Size of Nucleus
 Since the time of Rutherford, many experiments
have concluded:
Most nuclei are
approximately
spherical and has
almost uniform
density.

Therefore, the volume of

the sphere is proportional
to the number of
nucleons (A)
2. Nuclear Stability
There are very large repulsive electrostatic
forces between protons.
◦ These forces should cause the nucleus to fly
apart.
The nuclei are stable because of the
presence of another, short-range force,
called the nuclear force.
◦ This is an attractive force that acts between all
nuclear particles.
◦ The nuclear attractive force is stronger than the
Coulomb repulsive force at the short ranges
within the nucleus.
Nuclear Stability
 Light nuclei are most
stable if N = Z.
 Heavy nuclei are most
stable when N > Z.
◦ As the number of
protons increases, the
Coulomb force increases
and so more neutrons
are needed to keep the
nucleus stable.
 Nonuclei are stable
when Z > 83.
 Nuclear Reactions

Spontaneous decay Induced reaction by

of unstable nuclei bombardment of
radiation on stable
Radioactivity and unstable nuclei

In every nuclear reaction

- total charge is conserved
- total number of nucleons is conserved.
A1
Z1 X  Y V W
A2
Z2
A3
Z3
A4
Z4

Z1 + Z2 = Z3 + Z4 A1 + A 2 = A 3 + A 4
4. Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the random and
spontaneous emission of α, β or γ
radiation by unstable nuclei
Three types of radiation can be
emitted
◦ Alpha particles
 The particles are 4He nuclei.
◦ Beta particles
 The particles are either electrons or positrons.
 A positron is the antiparticle of the electron.
 It is similar to the electron except its charge is +e
◦ Gamma rays
 The “rays” are high energy photons.
Three types of radioactive
Alpha particles
rays have been identified
- helium nuclei,
in nature:
- barely penetrate a piece of paper.
- Used in smoke detectors - stopped
by smoke.

Beta rays,
- electrons (or positrons)
Gamma rays - penetrate 3 mm of
- electromagnetic rays aluminum,
- penetrate several cm of lead - interact strongly with matter.
and several meters of - Used in radiation therapy.
concrete.
Distinguishing Types of
Radiation

• A radioactive beam is directed into a region with a

magnetic field.
• The gamma particles carry no charge and thus are not deflected.
• The alpha particles are deflected upward.
• The negative beta particles (electrons) are deflected downward.
– Positrons would be deflected upward.
 4. Radioactivity
Nuclei that are unstable can decay or disintegrate
spontaneously and emit radiation in the process. This
spontaneous nuclear activity is called radioactivity. No
changes occur to the electrons that orbit it.

When a nucleus has On this side, the nucleus

too many neutrons has too many protons for
necessary for stability, stability, so it is unstable,
it becomes unstable and to attain stability, the
and the nucleus decays nucleus decays
by emitting a β- spontaneously by emitting
particle through the an α-particle which
conversion of a reduces the nucleus by
neutron into a proton two protons and two
plus an electron (the β- neutrons.
particle).
 Alpha Decay (α-decay)
 Unstable atomic nucleus (parent) emits an
alpha particle and transforms into an atom
(daughter) with a mass number 4 fewer and
atomic number 2 fewer.
A 4
A
Z P  Z 2 D  4
2 He

In α-decay, two protons and two

neutrons are ejected as an α-
particle. Proton and nucleon
number is conserved, so charge is
conserved.
238
92 U Th  He
234
90
4
2
 Beta-Decay (β-decay)
Beta decay occurs when a nucleus emits an electron.

A
Z P  A
Z 1 D  0
1 e
Because there are too many
neutrons, one of the neutrons
emits an electron as a β-particle
and converts into a proton in
the nucleus. The number of
neutrons thus reduces by one
and the number of protons
increases by one. The nucleon
number remains unchanged. Th 
234
90
234
91 Pa  0 -
e
1
The Neutrino
During beta decay, energy is released. However, it is found that
most beta particles do not have enough kinetic energy to account
for all of the energy released.

The additional energy is carried away by a neutrino, v or

antineutrino, .

234
90Th  234
91Pa  0
1 e   This is an
antineutrino
 Gamma Rays (γ-rays)
Gamma rays are very high-energy photons. They are emitted
when a nucleus decays from an excited state to a lower state,
just as photons are emitted by electrons returning to a lower
state.


A
Z P  A
Z P  

excited energy lower energy

state state

Only EM radiation is emitted without any change in the number

of protons or neutrons. However, it can also occur as part of
another decay process, namely β-decay.
 Examples of Decay
Reactions: A 4
Alpha:
A
Z
4
P  Z 2 D  2 He
 Beta-minus decay followed by gamma decay
◦ The first decay is a beta emission with
antineutrino.
◦ The second step is a gamma emission.

◦ The C* indicates the Carbon nucleus is in

an excited state. Gamma emission Adoesn’t
A
Z P changeA * 0
Z 1 D either  Z. Z 1D  Z 1 D  
 1e A or A *


 Applications of
Radioactivity
One type of smoke Gamma Knife: The procedure uses
detector uses alpha powerful, highly focused beams of
radiation – the presence gamma rays aimed at a tumor or
of smoke is enough to malformation to destroy it.
absorb the alpha rays
and keep them from
striking the collector
plate. This cuts off the
current and triggers the
alarm.
Gamma Probe
Since iodine is
used by the
thyroid,
measurement
of its activity
indicates the
health of the
 Half-Life and Rate of Decay

Nuclear decay is a random and

spontaneous process; the decay of any
nucleus is not influenced by the decay of
any other (random) nor induced or
forced by external factors
(spontaneous).
Activity is the number of
Minus sign refer to N
atoms of a radioactive
decreasing.
substance that decay per
unit time.

It depends on the N
number of radioactive A  N
particles (N) and the
decay constant (λ). t
The decay constant,
λ is the probability of
decay per nucleus per
Unit for activity, unit time.
A is Bq (becquerel
or decays per
second)
 N t
dN N
N N 0
 t
   t  ln    t  N  N 0 e
0
N0
Number of
radioactive
nuclei
remaining
(undecayed)
Exponenti
ally
decreasin
g curve
The half-life is the time taken for half the number of
radioactive nuclei in a sample to decay.
It is also the time taken for the activity of a sample to
decrease to ½ its initial value.

At time t = T½ , N = ½ N0

N 1  T 1
  e 2   ln 2  T1
N0 2 2
 NA is the
Avogadro’s Number
The number of is the number of
nuclei N can be nuclei in one mole
m
determined from its N  NA
mass m and the M The molar
Molar mass, M mass M is the
mass of one
mole

If each decay
The number of produces one
decayed particles is N D  N0  N radiation particle
the difference and releases Q
between the initial energy
and remaining E = (N0 – N)Q
nuclei P  Dd Q energy released

N remaining N0 – N N0 – N
nuclei daughter radiation
nuclei products
Radioactive Dating
An interesting application of radioactivity is the dating
of archaeological and geological specimens by
measuring the concentration of radioactive isotopes.
 Carbon Dating
Carbon Dating
◦ Beta decay of 14C is used to date organic
samples.
◦ The ratio of 14C to 12C is used.
14
6 C Ne14
7
-

◦ Carbon dating is based on the assumption

that the ratio of 14C to 12C in living
organisms is constant and its ratio
decreases as decay occurs in dead
Example 2:
14
What is the activity of a sample of 6C
that contains
3.1×1020 nuclei?
Solutions:
The activity of the sample is
N  ln 2 
A  N   N
t  T1 
 2 
 ln 2 
A   (3.1  10 20 )
 (5730 yr)(365  24  3600 s/yr ) 
A  1.2  10 9 decay/s

The SI unit for activity is the becquerel (Bq) which is one

decay/s.
Example 3:
The half-life of the radioactive nucleus Ra-226
is 1.60 × 103 yr. If a sample initially contains
3.00 × 1016 such nuclei, determine
(a) the initial activity,
(b) the number of radium nuclei remaining
after 4.80 × 103 yr, and
(c) the activity at this later time.
  
(a ) T1 2  1.6 103 yr 3.156  107 s/yr  5.0  1010 s 
ln 2 0.693
   1 .4  10 11 1
s
T1 2 5.0  1010

  
Ao  N 0  1.4  10 11 3.0  1016  4.2  10 5 decay/s

( b ) N  N 0 e  t
ln 2 3
 3
 4 .810 yr
1.610 yr
 (3.0 1016 )e  3.75 1015 nuclei

  
(c) A  N  1.4  10 11 3.8  1015  5.3  10 4 decays/s
7. Induced Nuclear
Reactions
NuclearReactions that take place
by bombardment by particles:
◦ α-particles 14
7 N  24He178O 11H
9
4 Be 24He126C  01n

◦ protons
7
3 Li 11H 2 24He
◦ neutrons 235
U  01n141 Ba  92
Kr  3 1
92 56 36 0n
Example 4

An Alpha particle collides with nitrogen to

produce an unknown substance, X. Find X.

Solution:
Balancing the equation allows us to identify X

So the reaction is

Section 29.6
RADIATION DAMAGE IN
MATTER
U N I T S O F RA D I AT I O N E X P O S U R E
B I O L O G I C A L E F F E C T S O F R A D I AT I O N
 IONIZING RADIATION

The radioactive particles and

One α-particle can
rays emitted have a lot of
ionize a thousand air
energy and is capable of molecules, producing
ionising the atoms around many positive-ly charged
them. ions.

The number of positive

charges produced per
unit mass of air
exposed to the radiation
is equal to the
exposure.
When the radiation is absorbed
by inorganic materials like
plastic, it can cause a
breakdown of the bonds that
form the structure of the
material, hence producing
discoloration, breakage, etc.
Damage to cells other than
reproductive ones is called
somatic damage. This can
alter the characteristics of
specific organisms or even lead
to cancer at high radiation
levels.
Radiation absorbed by
biological organisms
produces ionization in
cells that disrupts
normal cell functioning
Damage to reproductive
cells is called genetic
damage and can lead to
mutations or defective
offsprings.
 RADIATION EXPOSURE
Biologically
Activity Absorbed
effective Intensity
of source dose
dose
Old std unit Curie Rad Rem Roentgen
SI unit Becquerel Gray Sievert -

Image credits: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nuclear/imgnuc/radris1.gif

 INTENSITY

• Unit: Roentgen (R)

• Roentgen
• the amount of ionizing radiation that will produce 2.08 x
109 ion pairs in 1 cm3 of air under standard conditions
• amount of radiation that deposits 8.76 x 10−3 J of energy
into
1 kg of air.
• a measure of radiation intensity of x-rays or gamma rays
(not applicable to alpha, beta, or other particle emission.)
• does not accurately predict the tissue effects of gamma
rays of extremely high energies.
• mainly used for calibration of x-ray machines.
 ABSORBED DOSE

•  Absorbed dose is the amount of energy of the

radiation absorbed per unit mass of the absorbing
material.
• Unit: rad (old), Gray (SI)
• Radiation Absorbed Dose (rad)
• an absorbed dose of 0.01 joules of energy per kilogram of
tissue.
• Gray (Gy)
• 1 Joule of deposited energy per kilogram of tissue.
• 1 Gy = 1.00 J/kg
• 1 rad = 0.01 Gy
RELATIVE BIOLOGICAL EFFECTIVENESS

• the number of rads of x-ray or gamma radiation

that produces the same biological damage as 1
rad of the radiation being used.
• Larger values correspond to larger biological
effects.
Radiation RBE Factor
X-rays and gamma rays 1.0
Beta particles 1.0–1.7
Alpha particles 10–20
Slow neutrons 4–5
Fast neutrons and
10
protons
Heavy ions 20
BIOLOGICALLY EQUIVALENT DOSE

•• Units:
  rem (old), Sievert (SI)
• To assess the risk of radiation, the absorbed dose is multiplied
by the relative biological effectiveness (RBE) of the radiation to
get the biological equivalent dose (BED).

Old 
SI 

• Roentgen Equivalent in Man (rem)

• radiation dose in rads multiplied by a "quality factor" which is an
assessment of the effectiveness of that particular type and energy of
radiation.
• Sievert (Sv)
• 1 rem = 0.01 Sv
 EXAMPLE 5
The biologically equivalent dose for a typical chest X-ray is
2.5 x 10-2 rem. The mass of the exposed tissue is 21 kg, and it
absorbs 6.2 x 10-3 J of energy. What is the relative biological
effectiveness (RBE) for the radiation on this particular type of
tissue?
Solution:
• Biologically equivalent dose = absorbed dose x RBE
• Absorbed dose = energy absorbed / mass of tissue
• Therefore, 2.5 �102 rem
RBE  3
 0.85
(6.2 �10 J) � 1 rad �
�� �
(21 kg) � 0.01 Gy �
NUCLEAR MEDICINE:
RADIOTHERAPY
ALPHA, BETA AND GAMMA RADIATION

If inside the body (inhaled/ingested):

• Alpha radiation – most dangerous, because it is easily absorbed
by cells and deposits all its energy in a very small, localized
volume.
• Beta and gamma radiation – not as dangerous because they are
less likely to be absorbed by a cell and will usually just pass right
through it.

If outside the body:

• Alpha radiation – not as dangerous because it has less
penetrating ability.
• Beta and gamma radiation are the most dangerous
sources because they can penetrate the entire body and damage
internal organs.
 RADIOTHERAPY

• Although ionising radiation can cause cancer,

high doses can be directed at cancerous cells to
kill them. This is called radiotherapy.
• About 40% of people with cancer undergo
radiotherapy as part of their treatment. It is
administered in two main ways:
1. from outside the body using X-rays or the
radiation from radioactive cobalt
2. from inside the body by putting radioactive
materials into the tumour, or close to it
+
Example 6
Radioactive isotope of iodine, I-131 has a half-life
of 8.02 days. It decays to form Xe-131, a stable
isotope in two steps, with gamma decay
131
following rapidly after 53 I beta decay. (Given
has a Molar
131
I �mass
A
Xe* ofb 131 g) keV
v  606
53 Z e
A
Z Xe* � ZA Xe    364 keV
The patient was given 0.16 mg of iodide. Calculate:
(a) The number of radioactive nuclei in the sample after 5 days and the
activity.
(b) Determine the atomic number and mass number of Xe.
(c) The amount of Xe nuclei produced after 5 days and how much
energy was released in the process.
(d) Taken by ingestion, one of the radioactive products is absorbed by
human tissue. Which one is responsible for this?
(e) How much is the BED of the exposed tissue after 5 days if it is
absorbed by 300 grams of thyroid tissue?
a) The number of radioactive nuclei in the sample after 5
days and the activity.

•  

• Initial number of nuclei

• Decay constant

• Number of radioactive nuclei after 5 days

• Activity of radioactive nuclei after 5 days

b) Determine the atomic number and mass number of Xe.

•   the nuclear decay equation,

From

• Atomic number, Z

• Mass number, A
c) The amount of Xe nuclei produced after 5 days and how
much energy was released in the process.

•  Amount of Xe produced = amount of I decayed

• Energy released per decay = 606 + 364 = 970

keV
d) Taken by ingestion, one of the radioactive products is
absorbed by human tissue. Which one is responsible for
this?

• Beta particles
• Two radioactive products: beta particles & gamma
rays.
• Gamma rays penetrate the tissue. Can only
ingest (swallow with water or food) gamma
emitting radionuclides
e) How much is the BED of the exposed tissue after 5 days
if it is absorbed by 300 grams of thyroid tissue?

•  
• The beta particles (part (d)) after ingested are
absorbed by the thyroid tissue.
• Energy released per emission of beta particles =
606 keV
• Total energy emitted by all beta particles emitted
after 5 days

• Absorbed dose

• Biologically Effective Dose

 
Positron-Emission Tomography (PET)

Image retrieved from: http://www.cancer.gov/images/cdr/live/CDR466545-571.jpg

Main reference: Knight, R. D., Jones, B., & Field, S. (2007). College Physics: A Strategic Approach. San Francisco, CA: Pearson Addison Wesley.
 POSITRON-EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY
(PET)
• A type of nuclear imaging
• Uses radiation isotopes in the body
• To create an image of the biological activity of tissues in the
body
• Uses fluorine isotope, 18F, which emits a positron as
it undergoes beta-decay to 18O, with a half-life of 110
minutes.
• Used for imaging the brain.
• Scan analysis
• can provide diagnosis to a wide variety of disorders in the brain,
including Alzheimer’s disease, stroke and injury.
• can indicate which areas of the brain are involved in various
processes such as language, music, and vision.
 HOW IT WORKS

F is used to create fluorine-18 fluoro-deoxy-glucose

18

(FDG)

FDG is taken up by tissues in the brain.

Active areas use more glucose.

FDG is concentrated in active brain regions.

 HOW IT WORKS

When a fluorine atom in FDG decays, the emitted positron

immediately collides with a regular electron.

The two annihilate to produce two gamma rays that travel out
of the brain in opposite directions.

Simultaneous detection of many pairs of these gamma rays

on opposite sides of the subject give great accuracy as to
where the decays are occurring.

Full scans can show more activity in regions where metabolic

activity is enhanced, less activity in regions where metabolic
activity is depressed.
PET SCAN
Coincident
detection of two
gamma rays
means that the
positron source is
along the line.

Image retrieved from: http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/nucene/imgnuk/petscang.gif

 Summary Notes
Nucleus
Binding Energy and Stability
Nuclear Decay and Radioactivity
Radiation Effect

Plus: Additional Examples

 Atomic Nucleus
Mass Number – Chemical
Number of nucleons symbol atomic
(nuclear particles) atomic mass
A number
Z X number
Atomic number –   Z   N
 A
Number of protons Number of protons Number of Number of
and neutrons protons neutrons
Identifies the type of
chemical or element

Mass of whole atom is r  1.2  10 15 m  A1 3

atomic mass

Isotopes have the same atomic

Atom has number Z (same chemical), but
electrons, different mass number A.
protons,
and
neutrons Each atom with a specific Z
and A is a nuclide.
Use Avogadro’s number to show that 1 u = 1.66×10-27 kg.
From the definition of the mole, we know that exactly 12
g (1 mol) of 12C contains Avogadro’s number of atoms.
0.012 kg  26
m1 atom   1.99 10 kg
6.02  10 atoms
23

Because one atom of 12C is defined to have a mass of

12.0 u, divide by 12.0 to find the mass equivalent to 1 u:
26
1.99 10 kg  27
1u   1.66 10 kg
12.0
 Nuclear Stability and Radioactive Decays

Because neutrons are neutral, they do not

repel, so acting like glue to keep the
nucleons together. As nuclei get larger, Nuclides with proton
more neutrons are required for stability. number greater than 82
are radioactive. The largest
proton number for
Value for a stable nuclide: naturally occurring
Stable
For Z < 20, N/Z = 1 isotopes is 92.
nuclides
For Z > 20, it increases to 1.5
for large values of Z. When it is below the
β-emitter region of stable nuclides,
When the plot of (N,Z) for α-emitter it is also radioactive and
a nuclide is above the decays by α-emission.
region of stable nuclides,
the nuclide is radioactive
and decays by β-emission.
 Binding Energy (conceptual)

In a stable
nucleus, the
nucleons are
held together by
the strong
nuclear force.
The greater the binding energy (per nucleon),
the more stable the nucleus is.
Energy is needed to
The binding energy appears as extra mass of the
separate a stable
separated protons and neutrons in comparison
nucleus into its
to the mass of the nucleus. This difference in
constituent protons and
mass is known as the mass defect or mass
neutrons. This energy is
deficit, Δm.
called the binding
energy of the nucleus.
 Radioactivity
A magnetic field can be α-particle is the
used to separate the nucleus of a
three types of particles Helium atom,
emitted by radioactive consisting of two
nuclei. protons and two
neutrons.

High energetic EM
waves carrying
away energy


A
Z P  A
Z P  
β- is an electron
while β+ is a
positive electron
A
Z X  Z A1Y  10e  v (positron)
 Radioactive Decay and Half-Life
Activity, A = λN N 1   T1
  e 2   ln 2  T1
N0 2 2

N ln 2 0.693
 N  Half - life T1 
2



t N
   N   N 0 e  t
t
N t
dN N
N N   0 t  ln N 0  t  N  N 0e
 t

0
Number of decay products: Number of particles
daughter nuclei, ND  N0  N m
emitted particles, etc N  NA
M
 Summary: Radiation Effect
When exposure occurs to ionising radiation produced in air, some of
it is absorbed. Furthermore different forms of radiation produces
different relative biological effectiveness (RBE), that is, the damage
they cause or the effectiveness they have to produce biological
changes. As a result it is often more meaningful to speak of the
biologically equivalent dose which is the product of the absorbed
dose and the RBE as a measure of what damage can be expected
from such an exposure.  1 q
Exposure (in roentgens)   4 
 2.58  10 m
Dose of 200 - keV X - rays that
pruduces a certain biological effect
RBE  Energy absorbed
Dose of radiation that produces Absorbed dose 
the same biological effect Mass of absorbing material

Biological ly equivalent dose

 Absorbed dose  RBE
Detection of Radioactivity

Geiger Scintillation
Counter Counter
Example 10
210 A
The nuclide 81 X decays in four successive processes to 82Y .
Each of the decay process involved the emission of either an
α particle or a β− particle. Determine the value of A.

Solution:
Let n = number of alpha-particles emitted.
Hence number of β-particles emitted = (4 – n).
210
81 X � 82AY  n 24 He  (4  n) 10 e

Since electric charge (identified by the proton number) is

conserved,
81 = 82 + 2n + (-1)(4 – n)
3n = 3 and n = 1
210
81 X � 82AY  24 He  3 10 e
Since the nucleon number is conserved, 210 = A + 4
A = 206
Example 11:
At a certain time, a radioactive material produces 1280
decays per minute. 4.6 hours later, it produces 320 decays
per minute. What is its half-life?
Solution:
 N   N 0 e  t
320 decays/min  (1280 decays/min )e   ( 4.6 hr )
  0.301 / hr
0.693 0.693
T1    2.3 hr
2
 (0.301 / hr )
Example 12:
The half-life of 13N is 9.965 min.
(a) If a sample contains 3.20×1012 13N atoms at t = 0, how
many 13N nuclei are present 40.0 min later?
(b) What is the 13N activity at t = 0 and at t = 40.0 min?
Express the activities in Bq.
(c) What is the probability that any one 13N nucleus
decays during a 1-s time interval?
 The decay
constant and time
must be referring
( a ) N  N 0 e  t to the same time
ln 2 scale
 40 min
 (3.2  10 )e 12 9.965min
 1.98  10 nuclei
11

(b) R0  N 0 
ln 2  ln 2 
N0    3 .20  1012
3.71  109
Bq
T1 2  9.965  60 

R  N 
ln 2  ln 2 
N   1 .98  1011
2. 30  
10 8
Bq
T1 2  9.965  60 
(c) The probabilit y per second is
ln 2 ln 2
   1.16  10 3 s 1
T1 2 9.965  60