Basic Electricity

WORKMEN TRAINING PROGRAM
BASIC ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL

ENGINEERING
Workmen training programme l 1

OBJECTIVES
To know the basics of Electrical system.

To know the advantages and application of Electrical system.
To understand various components in a Electrical system.
Introduction to simple Electrical circuit.
Safety while handling Electrical system.

INTENDED TAKE AWAY
• My Learning outcome.
• Application of Electrical maintenance with respect to WELSPUN plant.
• How do I apply the knowledge in my work place.
3
Workmen training programme l
Circuit Diagrams
Battery (short side is negative terminal)
Wire conductor
Resistor
Light bulb (or other load)
Open switch
Closed switch
Ground
4
Open Circuit & Short Circuit
5
Series Circuit Analysis
A 4v battery is placed in a series circuit with a 2 resistor.
What is the total current that will flow through the circuit?
= IR
V= I * 2  2
= 2A
4v I=?
6
What voltage is required to produce 2a though a circuit with a 3 resistor.
= IR
= 2A * 3 3
= 6V
? I = 2A
7
What resistance is required to limit the current to 4a if a 12 v battery is in the
circuit?
= IR
2 = 4A * R 3
= 3
12v I = 4A
8
Resistance in series sum together when calculating total resistance
What is the current in the circuit below?
E = IR
12 = I * (2 + 4)
I = 2A 2 4
12V I=?
9
Resistance in series sum together when calculating total resistance
What is the resistance of the light bulb?
E = IR
12 = 4 * (2 + R)
R = 1 R=?
2
12V I=4
10
Series vs. Parallel Circuits
Series Circuits
o A series circuit is a circuit in which the current can only flow
through one path.
o Current is the same at all points in a series circuit
Parallel Circuits
• In contrast, in a parallel circuit, there are multiple paths for current
flow.
• Different paths may contain different current flow. This is also based
on Ohms Law
• Total resistance will be less than the smallest resistor**
11
By Analogy: Series Vs Parallel
E
I
R1 R2
E R1 I1
R2 I2
R3 I3
12
DC Current vs. AC Current
 Direct current (DC) flows in one direction it remains steady.
 Alternating current (AC) flows with time sinusoidal form and direction
depends on its polarity.
Same definitions apply to alternating voltage (AC voltage):
 DC voltage has a fixed polarity.
 AC voltage switches polarity back and forth.
13
Difference b/t Voltage and Current
• Example – you could say that…
– Amps means flow of electrons from one point to another point.

– It is measured in Ampere (I)
– Volts means potential difference between two points.

– It measured in Volt (V).
– 3-phase AC representation.
14
The Sinusoidal AC Waveform
o The most common AC waveform is a sine (or sinusoidal) waveform.
o The vertical axis represents the amplitude of the AC current or voltage, in
amperes or volts.
o The horizontal axis represents the angular displacement of the waveform. The
units can be degrees or radians.
15
Period of a Waveform
o The period of a waveform is the time required for completing one full cycle.
 symbol: T
 Unit of measure: seconds (s)
o One period occupies exactly 360º of a sine waveform
16
Frequency of a Waveform
o The frequency of a waveform is the number of cycles that is completed in each
second.
 symbol: f
 Unit of measure: hertz (Hz)
o This example shows four cycles per second (4 Hz)
o Conversions between period and frequency

 f = 1/T T = 1/f
17
What is Resistance?
• The opposition to the flow of an electric current, producing heat.

heat
• The greater the resistance, the less current gets through.
• Good conductors have low resistance.
• Measured in ohms.
18
What Influences Resistance?
• Material of wire – aluminum and copper have low resistance
• Thickness – the thicker the wire the lower the resistance
• Length – shorter wire has lower resistance
• Temperature – lower temperature has lower resistance
19
What is Voltage?
• The measure of energy given to the charge flowing in a circuit.
• The greater the voltage, the greater the force or “pressure” that drives
the charge through the circuit.
20
Ohm’s Law
• This law states that voltage drop across a resistance is equal to
product of value of current flowing that resistance and value
of resistance,at constant temperature.
• Equation:- V=I*R
• Resistance = Voltage / Current
• Ohms = Volts / Amps

21
Power Cable
• A power cable is an assembly of two or more electrical conductors,

usually held together with an overall sheath. The assembly is used for
transmission of electrical power.
• Power cables is installed as permanent wiring within buildings, buried in

the ground, run overhead, or exposed etc.
22
Construction
• Cables consist of three major components:

• Conductors,
• Insulation,
• Protective jacket.
The makeup of individual cables varies according to application.

Construction
The construction of cable depends on three main factors:
• Working voltage: Thickness of the insulation
• Current-carrying capacity: Cross-sectional size of the

conductor(s).
• Environmental conditions : Form and composition of the outer
cable jacket.

Selection of cables
• Cable selection for types of electrical cables at working voltages up to 1

kV at 50 Hz a.c.
• Three criteria are given for cable selection:
(a) Current-carrying capacity
(b) Voltage drop
(c) Short-circuit temperature rise

Classification of Cable
Multi-Conductor Cable
type
• Multi-conductor (MC) cable contains more
than one conductor. All the conductors in
multi-conductor cable come wrapped in an
insulation layer, with another insulation layer
covering the outside.
• Multi-conductor cables are easy to use,
lending themselves easily to home
applications.
Twisted Pairs Cable

• Twisted pairs cable contain two conductors,
or wires, twisted together. The two
conductors do not have individual insulation
covers. Their design provides an ideal
medium for signal transmission.

Cables (low voltage & low current)
Flexible & hook-up wires are used in low

current & low voltage applications within
enclosed electronic equipment.
These wires are composed of high graded

copper materials which are covered with
quality thermoplastic & PVC materials which
ensure complete insulation and prevent
leakage of current

Domestic Cable
These cables have low conductor resistance.

These industrial electrical cable are insulated
with a special grade PVC compound.
Insulated electrical wires are used for
transmission of low-voltage signals, electric
motors, dc power transformers, panel boards,
battery cables, etc.
The characteristics of the flexible single core
cable include good flexibility and adequate
voltage resistance.

Classification
Industrial Cable
LT cable
1. Use : Up to 690V
2. Insulation : PVC
3. Core(Neutral) : Yes
4. Insulation Grading :
1100 V
HT cable
1. Use : Above 690v
2. Insulation : XLPE
3. Core(Neutral) : No
4. Insulation Grading : Above
3.3kV, 11KV..etc

Connection of Power cable
Connection is made with,

nut & bolt through the lug
in the conductor

What is an electromagnet?
• Electromagnet –
a magnet made from a current bearing coil of wire wrapped
around an iron or steel core.
Use: Motor
Solenoid Coil
Cotactor coil
31
What is a Generator?
Generator:
• It is a machine that changes mechanical energy to electrical energy

• It usually use moving magnets to create currents in coils of wire.
Mechanical Electrical
Energy G Energy
Stationary
magnets - rotating
magnets -
electromagnets
32
Generator Construction
Workmen training programme l Basics of Electrical

33
Effects of Electric Current
 Magnetic effect:
– A conductor carrying electric current has a magnetic
field produced around it
 Heating effect:
– A conductor is heated when a current flows through
it.
 Chemical effect:
– A chemical solution decomposes when current flows
through it.
 Physical effect:
– A body having life as man, animal etc get electric
shock when current passes through it.
34
Protective Accessories
Fuses:
A fuse consists of a metal strip or wire fuse element,
of small cross-section compared to the circuit
conductors, mounted between a pair of electrical
terminals, and (usually) enclosed by a non-
conducting and non-combustible housing. The fuse is
arranged in series to carry all the current passing
through the protected circuit. The resistance of the
element generates heat due to the current flow. If
too high a current flows, the element rises to a higher
temperature and either directly melts, or else melts a
soldered joint within the fuse, opening the circuit.
35
Circuit breaker
• Trips automatically
• and breaks the house circuit when excess
current flows through it.

Circuit Breaker
Miniature Circuit Breaker:
A MCB (Miniature circuit Breaker) is a

mechanical switching device which is capable
of making, carrying and breaking currents
under normal circuit conditions and also
making, carrying for a specified time and
automatically breaking currents under
specified abnormal circuit conditions such as
those of short circuit.
MCB is a device for overload and short circuit

protection.
These are used in residential & commercial

MCB areas
37
Miniature Circuit Breaker
1. Actuator lever - used to manually trip and reset the
circuit breaker. Also indicates the status of the circuit
breaker (On or Off/tripped). Most breakers are
designed so they can still trip even if the lever is held
or locked in the "on" position. This is sometimes
referred to as "free trip" or "positive trip" operation.
2. Actuator mechanism - forces the contacts together or
apart.
3. Contacts - Allow current when touching and break
the current when moved apart.
4. Terminals
5. Bimetallic strip.
6. Calibration screw - allows the manufacturer to
precisely adjust the trip current of the device after
assembly.
7. Solenoid
8. Arc divider/extinguisher
MCCB
MCCB (Molded Case Circuit Breaker) used
for motor and transformer loads.
It has a higher interrupting current rating

than MCB's
39
Motor Protection Circuit Breaker
• THESE ARE THE CIRCUIT BREAKER WHICH ARE GENERALLY

USED TO PROTECT INDUCTION MOTOR FROM OVERLOAD .

RCCB
A residual current device (RCD), or residual

current circuit breaker (RCCB), is an
electrical wiring device that disconnects a
circuit whenever it detects that the electric
current is not balanced between the phase
("hot") conductor and the neutral
conductor. Such an imbalance is
sometimes caused by current leakage
through the body of a person who is
grounded and accidentally touching the
energized part of the circuit. A lethal shock
can result from these conditions
41
ELCB (Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker)
• An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical

installations with high earth impedance to prevent shock.
• The main purpose of earth leakage protectors is to prevent injury to humans

and animals due to electric shock.
• Operation
• An ELCB is a specialised type of latching relay that has a building's incoming
mains power connected through its switching contacts so that the ELCB
disconnects the power in an earth leakage (unsafe) condition.
• The ELCB detects fault currents from live to the earth (ground) wire within
the installation it protects. If sufficient voltage appears across the ELCB's
sense coil, it will switch off the power, and remain off until manually reset. A
voltage-sensing ELCB does not sense fault currents from live to any other
earthed body.

Three-phased Distribution Lines

Single-phase distribution lines and
three-phase distribution lines
• It is a common practice to tap single-phase lines off a three-phase line
• The three-phased distribution lines run along major streets, and
commercial and industrial areas.
• In these places, there is a need for high voltage, for example 415V.

Parts and Function of the Electrical Ckt.
• Main fuse: Breaks the circuit if the current exceed a safe value.
• Main switch: Disconnects the electrical power supply from the

mains when electrical energy is not needed.
• Circuit breaker: Cuts off the electric current flowing through a circuit
under abnormal conditions.
• Livewire Carries the electric current from the susbtation to the

house.
• Neutral wire: Carries the electric current from the house back to the
substaion
• Earth wire: Connects an electrical appliance directly to the earth.
• Electric meter: Measures the amount of electrical energy used.

QUIZ
• 1. With Ohm’s law

• 2. What happens to current and resistance if the voltage doubles?
• 3. How many amps are used by a 100 watt, 120 volt light bulb?
• 4. If resistance decreases, then current will:
• 5. A good fuse will have:
46
What is an Electric Motor?
Electromechanical device that converts electrical energy

to mechanical energy
Mechanical energy used to e.g.

Rotate pump impeller, fan, blower
Drive compressors
Lift materials
Motors in industry: 70% of electrical load

Introduction
48
Introduction
Three types of Motor Load:
Motor loads Description Examples

Constant Output power varies but Conveyors, rotary kilns,
torque loads torque is constant constant-displacement
pumps
Variable Torque varies with square Centrifugal pumps, fans

torque loads of operation speed
Constant Torque changes inversely Machine tools

power loads with speed

49
Types of electric motors
• Classification of Motors
Electric Motors
Alternating Current Direct Current (DC)

(AC) Motors Motors
Synchronous Induction Separately Self Excited

Excited
squirrel-cage Slip Ring Series Compound Shunt
50
AC Motors
• Electrical current reverses direction

• Two parts: stator and rotor
– Stator: stationary electrical component
– Rotor: rotates the motor shaft
• Speed difficult to control
• Two types
– Synchronous motor
– Induction motor
51
CONSTRUCTION OF AC Motor

AC Motor Detail

Type of AC Electric Motors
• AC Motors – Synchronous motor
Constant speed fixed by system frequency
DC for excitation and low starting torque: suited for low load
applications
Can improve power factor: suited for high electricity use systems
Synchronous speed (Ns):
Ns = 120 f / P F = supply frequency

P = number of poles

54
AC Motors
Induction motor
• Most common motors in industry

• Advantages:
– Simple design
– Inexpensive
– High power to weight ratio
– Easy to maintain
– Direct connection to AC power source
55
AC Motors – Induction motor
• Components
• Rotor
– Squirrel cage:
conducting bars
in parallel slots
– Wound rotor: 3-phase, double-layer, distributed winding
• Stator
– Stampings with slots to carry 3-phase windings
– Wound for definite number of poles
56
• How induction motors work

• Electricity supplied to stator
• Magnetic field generated that moves around rotor
• Current induced in rotor
• Rotor produces second magnetic field that opposes stator magnetic field
• Rotor begins to rotate Electromagnetics
Rotor
Stator
57
• Single-phase induction motor

– One stator winding
– Single-phase power supply
– Squirrel cage rotor
– Require device to start motor
– 3 to 4 HP applications
– Household appliances: fans, washing machines, dryers
58
• Three-phase induction motor
– Three-phase supply produces magnetic field
– Squirrel cage or wound rotor
– Self-starting
– High power capabilities
– 1/3 to hundreds HP applications: pumps, compressors, conveyor
belts, grinders
– 70% of motors in industry!
59
Slip Ring Motor

• The rotor of the slip ring motor has more
Slip ring motor windings than a squirrel-cage rotor so that
induction voltage is higher and the current
Schematic symbol of a slip ring
motor for the same field strength lower.
• During the start-up a typical rotor has 3
poles connected to the slip ring. Each pole
is wired in series with a variable power
resistor.
• When the motor reaches full speed the
rotor poles are switched to short circuit
becoming a standard squirrel-cage motor.
During start-up the resistors reduce the
field strength in the stator.
• As a result the inrush current is reduced.
Another important advantage over
squirrel-cage motors is higher start-up
torque.
Workmen training programme

61
Speed and slip
• Motor never runs at synchronous speed but runs nearer to synchronous

speed.
• The difference between synchronous speed and actual speed of the
motor is called percentage Slip.
• Install slip ring to avoid this
• Calculate % slip: Ns = synchronous speed in RPM
% Slip = Ns – N x 100 N = Actual speed in RPM
Ns
62
Relationship load, speed and torque
At 80% of full
At start: high speed: highest
current and “pull-out”
low “pull-up” torque and
torque current drops
At full speed:
torque and
stator current
are zero
63
STARTERS
• STARTERS ARE USED IN INDUCTION MOTORS FOR REDUCING THE

STARTING CURRENT AND THUS REDUCE THE POWER CONSUMPTION.
• BY USING ELECTRICAL STARTERS STARTING CURRENT CAN BE REDUCED BY
8-10 % FROM NORMAL STARTING.
• TYPES OF STARTERS:
1) DOL STARTER
2) FORWAR/REVERSE STARTER
3) STAR/DELTA STARTER
64
Star Delta Starter
 The starting current of any heavy electric motor can be more than 8-10 %
the normal load current it draws when it has gained speed and has
reached its normal running output power and temperature.
 One solution to this problem is to start the motor in STAR and then, when
the motor has gained sufficient speed, change its connections to DELTA to
allow the motor to run at its full speed and torque from then on.
 It's like using the gears of an automobile.
65
Motor DOL Starter

Contactor controlled DOL starter
L1 L2 L3
C/B
1 1
K1.2 K1.4
Start K1.1
K1.3
2
TOL Stop
3
TOL
4
K1/4
M 5
3~

Motor Fwd/Rev Starter

Motor Star Delta Starter

L1 L2 L3
Motor Star Delta Starter
C/B
K2.1 K2.4 S1 K2.1

K2.3
K3.1
TOL S2
B1
A1 C1 K3.1 TOL
MM
K4.1 K4.2 K4.3
3~3~ K1/3 K2/4 K3/2 K4/3
C2 B2
A2
Start Line Timer Delta
K1.1 K1.3
K1.2
DC Motors
• Speed control without impact power supply quality

– Changing armature voltage
– Changing field current
• Restricted use
– Few low/medium speed applications
– Clean, non-hazardous areas
• Expensive compared to AC motors
71
Direct Current Motors

Brushed DC Motor

DC Motors – Components
• Field pole
– North pole and south pole
– Receive electricity to form
magnetic field
• Armature
– Cylinder between the poles
– Electromagnet when current goes through
– Linked to drive shaft to drive the load
• Commutator
– Overturns current direction in armature
A set of carbon brushes

used in DC Motor
74
DC motors
• Relationship between speed, field flux and armature voltage
Back electromagnetic force: E = KN

Torque: T = KIa
E = electromagnetic force developed at armature terminal (volt)

 = field flux which is directly proportional to field current
N = speed in RPM (revolutions per minute)
T = electromagnetic torque
Ia = armature current
K = an equation constant
75
DC motors
• Separately excited DC motor: field current supplied

from a separate force
• Self-excited DC motor: shunt motor
Speed constant
independent of
load up to certain
• Field winding parallel torque
with armature winding
• Current = field current Speed control:
+ armature current insert resistance
in armature or
field current 76
76
DC motors
Self-excited DC motor: series motor
Suited for high

starting torque: • Speed restricted to
cranes, hoists 5000 RPM
• Avoid running with
no load: speed
uncontrolled
• Field winding in series
with armature winding
• Field current =
armature current
77
DC motors
DC compound motor
Suited for high Good torque and
starting torque if high stable speed
% compounding:
cranes, hoists
Higher %
compound in
Field winding in series = high
series and starting torque
parallel with
armature winding
78
Need of Drive
• Machine or Process Requirements

• Energy Savings
• Automated factory concepts
• Productivity increases

AC Drive

AC DRIVE BASICS
MOTOR
OUTPUT
LINE INPUT
All AC Drives convert “fixed” voltage and frequency into “variable” voltage
and frequency, to run 3-phase induction motors.

SCR (silicon controlled rectifier)
• An SCR consists of four layers of alternating P and N type

semiconductor materials
• It exhibit bistable state-change behaviour, that is, switching
either ON or OFF.
• SCRs are mainly used in devices where the control of high
power, possibly coupled with high voltage, is demanded. Their
operation makes them suitable for use in medium to high-
voltage AC power control applications, such as lamp dimming,
regulators and motor control
82
Types of AC Drives
In today’s marketplace, there are 3 basic AC
Drive categories:
• Open loop “Volts / Hz” Drives V/Hz
SENSOR-
• Open loop “Sensor less Vector” Drives LESS
VECTOR
FLUX
• Closed loop “Flux Vector” Drives VECTOR
All are Pulse-Width-Modulated (PWM)
Some manufacturers offer 2-in-1 & 3-in-1 Drives,
combining these attributes.
Open loop “Volts / Hz” Drives
V
Motor Nameplate V/Hz
460
o
l 230 r qu
eB
o os
t
t
To
s
0 30 60 Hz
900 1800 RPM*
(Base) *( 4-pole motor)
• Motor voltage is varied linearly with frequency
• No compensation for motor & load dynamics
• Poor shock load response characteristics

Sensorless & Flux Vector Drives
V 460
o
l 230
t
s
0 30 60 Hz
900 1800 RPM*
(Base) *( 4-pole motor)
• Motor voltage is varied linearly with frequency, with dynamic self-adjustments

• V/Hz compensation for motor & load dynamics
• Excellent shock load response characteristics & high starting torque
AC Motor Torque & HP vs. Speed
Torque
100
%
T & HP HP
0 30 60 Hz
900 1800 RPM
• Motor Torque is constant to base speed

• HP varies proportionally to speed

Pulse-Width-Modulated Inverter Basic Power
Circuit
AC to DC DC to AC
DC Filter
Rectifier Inverter
AC
Output
AC Bus
Caps IGBTs M
Input
DC
All PWM inverters (V/Hz, Vector & Sensorless Vector) share similar power circuit
topologies.
AC is converted to DC, filtered, and inverted to variable frequency, variable
voltage AC.

DC DRIVE BASICS
A1
Armature
A2
F1
Field
F2
LINE INPUT MOTOR OUTPUT
DC Drives convert AC line voltage into variable DC voltage with an SCR

phase-controlled bridge rectifier, to power the DC motor ARMATURE. A
separate field supply provides the motor with DC FIELD excitation.

DC Drive

DC Motor Torque & HP vs. Speed
Motor nameplate: 250 / 1000 RPM
FULL FIELD FIELD WEAKENED RANGE

4:1
TORQUE & HORSEPOWER
CONSTANT TORQUE CONSTANT HORSEPOWER

100
75
TORQUE @ 100% ARMATURE AMPS

50 2 : 1 FIELD
WEAKENING
3 : 1 FIELD WEAKENING
25
4 : 1 FIELD WEAKENING
250 500 750 1000

Base Speed Max.Speed
SPEED (RPM)
DC Drive Advantages over AC
• Simple Controller Design- only one power conversion stage, no

power storage elements.
• Higher Controller Efficiency- 98%+ electrically efficient
• Simple, 4-quadrant line regeneration - with 6 reverse SCRs
• Efficient, inherent Torque control - Field & Armature flux always
positioned optimally.
• Retrofit to existing DC motors - previously power by M-G set or
older drive types.
• Most cost-effective drive package above 100HP
• High Controller reliability - Low maintenance due to simple power
module design

…more DC Drive Advantages over AC
• Lower power line harmonic contribution - less than 50% of AC
• Smaller line reactors- less costly
• More compact controller size per equivalent HP
• More robust power semiconductors - SCRs have better overload
and peak voltage characteristics, vs. IGBTs.
• Low motor acoustical noise: no “carrier” noise.
• Fewer motor lead-length issues: no capacitive coupling, dV/dT or
standing wave problems.
• Easier troubleshooting & serviceability

AC Drive Advantages over DC
• Simple, low-maintenance motor - no brushes or commutator.
• High dynamic performance - low rotor inertia, compared with DC
armature.
• Motors are inexpensive & readily available
• Motors suitable for harsh, rugged environments : some explosion-
proof ratings available.
• Better open-loop speed regulation - with Sensorless Vector & slip
compensation.
• Higher torque response bandwidth - on Vector-type; not limited by
AC line frequency.
• More cost-effective drive package below 100HP
• Multi-motor & inherent load sharing on single controller
• Line-bypass option - permits single-speed motor operation during
controller maintenance

…more AC Drive Advantages over DC
• No separate motor field - no field loss sensing required

• Wider speed ranges - motors available through 6000 RPM & higher.
• Contactor-free dynamic braking - linear braking power to zero
speed.
• Retrofit onto existing single-speed AC applications
• Smaller motor frame sizes than equivalent DC.
• Longer power-dip ride-through capabilities
• Near unity power factor regardless of speed and load

QUIZ
• 1.What is an SCR?
• 2. In a three-phase system, when the loads are perfectly balanced, the
neutral current is
• 3. A 5 mH, a 4.3 mH, and a 0.6 mH inductor are connected in parallel. The
total inductance is
• 4. A sine wave voltage is applied across an inductor. When the frequency
of the voltage is decreased, the current
• 5. The winding resistance of a coil can be increased by

95
PLC (Programmable logic Controllers)
• ADVANTAGES
• Functioning of Welspun is largely automated ,
and based on interlocks, which have been
implemented mainly by interlocks enabled
through PLC.
• Problem identification and troubleshooting
becomes easy in otherwise complex systems.

What is a Control System?
PB1
M1
LS1
INPUTS LOGIC OUTPUTS

M1
SOL
M2R

P L C components(Hardware)
• Central Processing Unit

• Input Modules
• Output Modules
• Power Supply
• Bus system
• Rack(Rail)

PLC Signal Flow
Input Module Processor Memory Output Modules
I/p
Data Output
Image Table Image Table
I:0/6 O:0/7
I:0/6
O:0/7
I:1/4 O:1/5
Input Devices Output Devices

Ladder Program
I:0/6 O:0/7
I:1/4 O:1/5
I:1/4 O:1/5
PC for Programming 99
Configuration of PLC : GE FANUC
I/O Modules Back plane
CPU

Configuration of PLC : Siemens
CPU
External Power I/O Modules

Supply

Configuration of PLC : Allen Bradley
CPU
I/O Modules
Power Supply

Basic PLC Parts
Processor
Central Processing Unit Program Panel

Memory
Input/Output Rack
Power Supply
Adapter
Module
Module
Module
Module
Module
Module
Module
Module
Output Devices Input Devices

Limit Switches
Solenoids Pres. Switches
Motor Starters Prox. Switches
Alarms Temp. Switches
Indicators Push Buttons
D/A A/D
Logic Logic
BCD BCD

HOW IT WORKS
• The first step involved in automating any

industrial process or machine is to determine
the sequence of operation or events which
are specific to its operation. This sequence is
then arranged into a set of logic functions.
• Then this Logic scheme is turned into a
physical system using the basic building blocks
of the particular technology selected.

What' happens in an operating cycle
START
1.Input
3. Output
Scan Scan
-
- -PLC During the input scan PLC
OPERATING examines the external input devices
Based on the data in -On or Off.
the output image file CYCLE The status of the inputs is
the PLC energises or TYPICALLY - stored in an input image
temporarily
de-energises it’s output memory file.
circuits,controlling 1 to 25 ms.
external devices.
The PLC scans the instructions in the ladder

logic program,uses the input status from the
2. Program input image file & determines if an output will
Scan be energised.The resulting status of the outputs
is written to the output image memory file.

Basic things to be taken care of by technicians.
• They should be well aware with the interlocks

taken in field.
• They should check that all field devices, which
are working as input devices for PLCs are well
connected , so that their input signal is not
hampered.
• In case any function is not operating ,they
should check whether input is coming in the
input module.

• In case input is not coming ,they should check the
input device connections .
• If the connections are done proper, input signal is
coming and still output not getting generated, then
PLC should be taken online, to check if the interlocks
are healthy.
• Any unhealthy interlock can be determined by
making PLC online , and it can be rectified.
• Working under supervision of engineer is necessary
while working on PLCs.

Transformer

What is a Transformer ?
• Transforms electrical energy from

– One AC circuit to another
– One alternative voltage to another,
– Without change in the frequency.
• Energy transforms magnetically.
• Changes voltage from low to high or high to low,
• Current decreases or increases correspondingly.
109
Types of Transformers
• Power Transformers
Power transformers are used to convert from one voltage to another, at
significant power levels.
• Step-up transformers
A "step-up transformer" allows a device that requires a high voltage
power supply to operate from a lower voltage source. The transformer
takes in the low voltage at a high current and puts out the high voltage
at a low current.
• Step-down transformer
A "step-down transformer" allows a device that requires a low voltage
power supply to operate from a higher voltage. The transformer takes in
the high voltage at a low current and puts out a low voltage at a high
current.
110
Salient Features
• The coil connected to the source is called Primary and the other coil
from which the output is taken is called secondary.
• Coils are wound on laminated cores.
• The vertical portions of the core are called limbs and the top and bottom
portions are the yokes.
111
Working Principle
A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties
of an iron core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It cannot increase
power so if the voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and
vice versa.

Working Principle
• The primary winding induces the voltage very nearly equal to the
applied voltage in it.
• Total emf induced in secondary/total emf induce in primary

= E2/E1=T2/T1.
T1: No of turns of coil in primary coil
E1: emf in primary coil
T2: No. of turn of coils in secandry coil
E2: emf in secandry coil
This is called the transformation ratio of the transformer.
• Transformer windings are of high inductance compared to their
resistances, so the magnetizing current is large compared to the current
supplying to iron loss.
113
Construction
– Tank
• Is of steel construction and contains the assembled core and windings.
– Core
• consists of laminations of silicon steel insulated from one another by
thin layer of paper and varnish.
– Core types:
• Core type,
• Shell type
114
Construction
- Windings
• Consist of low voltage and
high voltage.
– Oil:
• It is used to cool and insulate the transformer winding and core.
• The common transformer oil is a mineral oil obtained by refining
crude petroleum.
• Synthetic liquids are also used to cool transformers.
– It absorbs the moisture and blue colored silica gel becomes pinkish.
115
Construction
– Conservator:
• It is a cylindrical tank placed on the top of a transformer.
• It is connected to the main transformer tank by a pipe.
• It is always filled with oil.
• It absorbs the expansion and contraction of oil so that the main
transformer is always full and the surface of the oil is not exposed
to air.
Breather:
• To prevent the air with moisture entering the tank, the breather is
provided. It contains silica gel. (CaCl2).
- Explosion vent:
• It is a large diameter vent pipe fitted on the tank and projecting
upwards. There are diaphragms in it.
• These diaphragms rupture and relieve the pressure of the tank in case
there is a large volume of gas formed within the tank due to winding
faults. Thus the chance of bursting of the transformer tank is prevented.
116
Construction
Buchholz relay:
This is connected on the path between the tank and the
conservator tank.
If the gases are generated in the tank due to faults like short-
circuited laminations, local overheating of windings, bad
contacts and faulty joints, earth fault, puncture of bushings,
internal short circuit etc. this relay gives alarm in a low level of
faults and trips the transformer for heavy release of gas.

117
Construction
• Radiator:
– Radiators offer larger cooling surface for the cooling oil to
circulate thereby enabling effective cooling.
• Thermometer:
– They are meant to measure the temperature of hot oil.
• Bushing:
– These are used to bring out the connections from the
transformer.
• Tap changer:
– By operating this tap changing switch the turn ratio can be
changed to the requirement.
• Oil level indicator:
– This is to monitor the oil content in the transformer tank.
• Filling hole and cap:
– This is to fill the oil to the transformer tank.
118
Construction
• Drain cock:
– This is for draining the complete oil of the transformer tank whenever
the oil has to be changed or samples are to be taken
• Rollers:
– These enable easy transportation of the transformer on the rails for
installation.
• Lifting hook:
– Meant for lifting the transformer for movement from one place to the
other.
• Earthling terminal:
– This is provided for connecting the transformer body to the earth.
119
Construction
• Nameplate:
– This gives the important specification of the Transformer.
120
Three Phase Transformer
•Basically, electricity is generated by rotating (3) coils or windings

through a magnetic field within the generator .
•These coils or windings are spaced120 degrees apart. As they

rotate through the magnetic field they generate power which is
then sent out on three (3) lines as in three-phase power
•Three phase electricity powers large industrial loads more

efficiently than single-phase electricity.

121
Three Phase Transformer Construction
A three phase transformer is constructed by winding three single
phase transformers on a single core.
These transformers are put into an enclosure which is then filled
with dielectric oil. The dielectric oil performs several functions.
It is a non-conductor of electricity,
It provides electrical insulation between the windings and the
case.
It is also used to help provide cooling and to prevent the formation
of moisture, which can deteriorate the winding insulation.

122
Three-Phase Transformer Connections:
There are only 4 possible transformer combinations:
•Delta to Delta - use: industrial applications
•Delta to Star- use : most common; commercial and industrial
•Star to Delta - use : high voltage transmissions
•Star to Star- use : rare, causes harmonics and balancing problems.

123
•The three primary windings (P1, P2, P3) connected to provide
the proper sequence (or correct polarity) required and will be in
a configuration known as Delta.
•The three secondary windings (S1, S2, S3) is connected to
provide the proper sequence (or correct polarity) required.
•The secondary windings, depending on voltage required, is
either Delta or a Star configuration.

124
Connections of Transformer
– The transformers can be of single phase or three phase depending

on the requirement.
– For three phase, the primary and Secondary of transformers can be
connected in different ways. It is…
– Delta Connection:
OR
– Star Connection
125
Connections of Transformer
Three-phase transformers are connected in delta or Star configurations.
Delta-Delta:
Both the primary and secondary are connected in delta. Mostly this is used
for low voltage with larger out put
Star- Star:
The primary and secondary are connected in Star connection. It is
economical in the cases of small out put at high voltage. Neutrals are also
available.
Star-delta:
The primary winding is connected in a Star and its secondary winding is
connected in a delta. This connection is used chiefly for stepping down
voltages from high voltage transmission lines.
delta-Star:
The primary winding connected in delta and its secondary winding is
connected in a star. It is also used for step up purposes for power
transmission.
126
Star- Delta Connection

127
STAR-DELTA CONNECTION
Voltage in each star winding =V/

Voltage in each delta winding =V

128
Transformer Connection
Delta Connection A delta system is a good short-

distance distribution system.
It is used for neighborhood and
small commercial loads close to the
supplying substation.
Only one voltage is available

between any two wires in a delta
system. The delta system is shown
by a simple triangle.

129
Transformer Connection
• Star Connections • Voltage between any two wires

will always give the same
amount of voltage on a three
phase system.
• Voltage between any one of the
phase conductors and the
neutral will be less than the
power conductors.

130
Three Phase Step down Transformer at ERW Plant
Input Voltage:
11KV
Output Voltage:
440 V
5 Transformers of this type are installed

131
MAINTENANCE OF TRANSFORMER
• Transformer is the heart of any power system.

• Preventive maintenance is always cost effective and time saving.
• Any failure to the transformer can extremely affect the whole
functioning of the organization.

MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE
OIL :
1. Oil level checking. Leakages to be attended.
2. Oil BDV & acidity checking at regular intervals. If acidity is between
0.5 to 1mg KOH, oil should be kept under observation.
3. BDV, Color and smell of oil are indicative.
4. Check Silica gel to prevent Winding from moisutre.

MAINTENANCE PROCEDURE
1. Sludge, dust, dirt ,moisture can be removed by filtration.

2. Oil when topped up shall be of the same make. It may lead to sludge
formation and acidic contents.
• Insulation resistance of the transformer should be checked once in 6
months.
• Megger values along with oil values indicate the condition of
transformer.
• Periodic Dissolved Gas Analysis can be carried out.
BUSHINGS
• Bushings should be cleaned and inspected for any cracks.
• Dust & dirt deposition, Salt or chemical deposition, cement or acid
fumes depositions should be carefully noted and rectified.

MAINTENANCE
• Periodic checking of any loose connections of the terminations of HV &

LV side.
• Breather examination. Dehydration of Silica gel if necessary.
• Explosion vent diaphragm examination.
• Conservator to be cleaned from inside after every three years.
• Regular inspection of OIL & WINDING TEMPERATURE METER readings.
• Cleanliness in the Substation yard with all nets, vines, shrubs removed.

PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS
• The best way of protecting a transformer is to have good preventive

maintenance schedule.
• Oil Temperature Indicators.
• Winding Temperature indicators.
• Buchholz Relay.
• Magnetic Oil level Gauge.
• Explosion Vent.

PROTECTION OF TRANSFORMERS
• HT fuse & D.O. fuse.
• LT circuit breaker.
• HT Circuit breaker with Over load, Earth Fault relay tripping.
• Oil Surge Relay for OLTC.
• PRV for OLTC.
• HORN GAPS & Lightening Arrestor.
• Breather.

Switchgear
• A basic function of switchgear power systems is protection from short

circuits and overload fault currents.
• It provides continuous service to unaffected circuits while avoiding the
creation of an electrical hazard.
• Switchgear power systems also provide important isolation of various
circuits from different power supplies for safety issues.
138
Switch Gear Types
1. Gas insulated switchgear (GIS) system: (A very effective form of

switchgear power systems):
In this type of system, conductors and contacts are insulated by
pressurized sulphur hexafluoride gas.
2. Oil insulated switchgear
3. Vacuum switchgear
139
Selection of Switch Gear
• Switchgear power systems depends on the following factors:

• Power requirement
• Location of system
• Security
140
Circuit breaker
• A circuit breaker is also an important part of switchgear power systems

and their safety and function.
• A circuit breaker that is housed within switchgear power systems
enclosures is a primary component that can interrupt fault currents.
• A circuit's arc is quelled when the circuit breaker pulls apart the contacts
and disconnects the circuit.
141
Circuit breakers categories
• Oil circuit breakers

• Gas circuit breakers
• Vacuum circuit breakers
• Air circuit breakers .
Note: Circuit breakers limits current's flow in 30 ms to 150 ms,

depending on the circuit breaker's age, design and construction.
142
Classifications of Switchgear Power Systems
1. Low voltage (less than 1,000 volts AC),

• In the front it consists of the circuit breakers, meters, protective
relays.
• The function of any switchgear is electrical protection, electric
isolation and local and remote switching.
• Switchgear for low voltages is enclosed within a building.
• Modern switchgear are driven by microprocessors.
143
Switch gear classification based on voltage
2. Medium voltage (1,000-35,000 voltage AC)

Types:
– Medium Voltage Vacuum Switchgear
– Medium Voltage Gas Insulated Switchgear
144
Switch gear classification based on voltage
High voltage (more than 35,000 volts AC).

For transmission levels of voltage (high voltages over 66 kV), often
switchgear will be mounted outdoors and insulated by air and it
requires a large amount of space.
Gas insulated switchgear used for transmission-level voltages saves
space compared with air-insulated equipment, although it has a
higher equipment cost.
Oil insulated switchgear presents an oil spill hazard.
145
Substation
• Switchgear is located in substations on both the high voltage and the

low voltage side of large power transformers.
• The switchgear located on the low voltage side of the transformers are
smaller, medium-voltage (~15kV) circuit breakers feeding the
distribution system. These also includes various relays, meters, and
other communication equipment allowing for intelligent control of the
substation.
• Industrial applications, a transformer and switchgear (Load Breaking
Switch Fuse Unit) line-up may be combined in one housing, called a
unitized substation.
146
Sample of Power Distribution to Plant
147
Electrical Sub-Station

Electrical Earthing
It means;
• Connecting the circuit to a common point of reference; that is the earth.

• A frequently quoted criteria is the establishment of a one (1) Mohm
resistance to earth
149
Earthing / Grounding
• The primary goal of the grounding system is SAFETY.

• Secondary are effective lightning protection, diminishing
electromagnetic coupling (EMC), and the protection against
electromagnetic pulses (EMP).
• Grounding is implemented to ensure rapid clearing of faults and to
prevent hazardous voltage, which in turn reduce the risks of fires and
personnel injuries.
• Grounding serves the primary functions of referencing the AC systems
and providing a means to ensure fault clearing.
150
Grounding and Over-current Protection
• Electrical protection systems are intended to:

• Protect Personnel from
• - Electrocution
• - Fire
• Protect Equipment and Facility from
• - Failure
• - Fire
• Protect Electrical Circuit from
• - Cable Failures
151
Types of Loads
 Resistive
 Inductive
 Capacitive

Resistive Circuit
I V
Current in Phase with Voltage

Inductive Loads
Current Lagging Voltage by 900

Capacitive Loads
Current Leading Voltage by 900

Power factor correction
Some fundamental thoughts
• What is Power factor?

• Why power factor is important?
• Why improve power factor?
• What is the power factor of various loads?
• What is the origin of power factor?
• How to improve power factor?

Electric Power
Apparent Power
kVA
er
er
ow
w
eP
P o
tiv
iv e
ac
t
Re
Ac
158
Power Factor Improvement Concept
• Reactive Power flow analogy
• Power Triangle analogy
• Resonance analogy

Power Triangle
Ap
p ar
kW
Reactive Power
en kVA = 2
+ kVAr2
tP
ow
er kW
P.F. =
kVA
Active Power

PF of various Industries
Industry Power Factor
Textiles 0.65/0.75
Chemical 0.75/0.85
Machine shop 0.4 / 0.65
Arc Welding 0.35/ 0.4
Arc Furnaces 0.7 / 0.9
Coreless induction furnaces and heaters 0.15/0.4
Cement plants 0.78/0.8
Garment factories 0.35/0.6
Breweries 0.75/0.8
Steel Plants 0.6 / 0.85
Collieries 0.65/0.85
Brick Works 0.6 / 0.75
Cold Storage 0.7 / 0.8
Foundries 0.5 / 0.7
Plastic moulding plants 0.6 / 0.75
Printing 0.55/0.7
Quarries 0.5 / 0.7
Rolling Mills (i.e. ,Paper, Steel , etc.) 0.3 / 0.75 161
Inductive Loads
Induction Motor Arc Furnace
0.8 P.F 0.8 P.F
Floursent
Lamp
0.5 P.F.
Induction Welding
Furnace Transformer
0.8 P.F 0.5 P.F.

Advantages of P.F
Correction
Reduction in KVAR
Demand
Reduction in
Reduction in KVA Reduction in
Switchgear
Demand Transformer Rating
Rating
Reduction in
Reduction in Line Reduction in Line
Cable / Bus-bar
Current loss
size
REDUCTION IN KVA DEMAND
LOAD - 900 KW
KV
EXISTING P.F. (COS Ø 1) - 0.6 A
DESIRED P.F. (COS Ø2 ) - 0.92 Ø.

KW
COS Ø =
.
kW
kVA
KVA = kW
cos Ø .
Reduction in KVA
1500 - 978 = 522

KVA 1 = 900 / 0.6 = 1500
KVA2 = 900 / 0.92 = 978 164

REDUCTION IN KVAR DEMAND
KW - 900
KV
A
KVAR
KVA1 - 1500
kVA = KW2 + KVAR2
KVA2 - 978 KVAR1 = KVA12 - KW2 Ø.
= KW
1500 2 - 900 2 = 1200
KVAR 2 =
978 2 - 900 2 = 382
Reduction in KVAR
1200 - 382 = 818

REDUCTION IN LINE CURRENT
KVA1 - 1500
KVA = 3 V I
KVA2 - 978 1000
I = KVA x 1000
3 x 415
I1 = 1500 x 1000
3 x 415
=
2087 Amp
I2 = 978 x 1000
Reduction in Current 3 x 415

= 1361 Amp
2087 - 1361 = 726

QUIZ
1.What is PLC?
2. Which side of transformer contains tapping?
3. MPCB are used for?
4. What is the formula of Slip?
5. What should be the Earth Resistance?
6. What should be the colour of Slilica gel in ideal condition?
7. What is the transformation Ratio?
167
ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

USE OF INSTRUMENTS
• TO MEASURE ELECTRICAL QUANTITIES LIKE VOLTAGE, AMPERE,

RESISTANCE OF ANY ELECTRICAL MOTORS OR EQUIPMENT ELECTRICAL
INSTRUMENTS ARE USED.
• TYPES OF INSTUMENTS:
1) MULTIMETER – USE TO MEASURE VOLTAGE
2) TONG TESTER – USE TO MEASURE CURRENT
3) MEGGER – USE TO MEASURE RESISTANCE
169
Instruments
LC display
ON/OFF push-button
Push-button for data hold and MIN/MAX storage
Push-button for manual range selection
Multi-function push-button
Switch for measurement functions
Connection sockets with automatic

blocking system
170
Instruments
Jaw
Push-button for data hold

Jaw Trigger
Switch for measurement functions
LC display
Push-button MIN/MAX storage
Push-button for Inrush Current
Push-button for Zero Setting
Test Lead Inputs

171
Instruments
Applications
 Ideal for Insulation Resistance
Measurement of
 Electrical Equipment (Motors,
Transformers, Machines, etc.)
 Electrical Cables for Distribution
Networks
 Cables for Communication Networks
 House Hold Appliances (Washing
Machines, Mixer, Toaster, etc.)
 Industrial, Commercial & Residential
Installations
172
WELDING

• WHAT IS WELDING?
WELDING is a process of joining different materials;
• with or without using heat,
• with or without applying pressure,
• with or without using filler Materials.
174
METHODS OF WELDING
• Fusion welding - arc welding, gas welding.
• Non-fusion welding - Forge welding / resistance welding
• Pressure welding - silver soldering, brazing.
175
Workmen training program 175
WELDING PROCESSES IN PIPE PLANTS
Welding processes that employ an electric arc are the most prevalent in industry.
The following types of Welding are prominently used in Welspun Pipe plants
 Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW/MMAW)
 Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW)
 Submerged Arc Welding (SAW)
176
ARC WELDING PROCESSES
PRINCIPLE OF ARC WELDING
•When the high current passes through an air gap from one
conductor to another,
•it produces very intense and concentrated heat in the form of a

spark,
•which can melt and fuse the metal very quickly to produce a
homogeneous weld.
In Arc welding process the source of heat is electricity.
(High voltage – Low ampere)
177
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING (SMAW)
It is one of the arc welding process in which the arc is struck in between the flux coated electrode and the work piece.
The flux coating melts produces a gaseous shield and slag to prevent atmospheric contamination of molten weld metal. Hence this arc is
called shielded arc.
Repair welding is one of the important application of SMAW
178
179
Workmen training program Workmen training programme l 179
MANUAL METAL ARC WELDING (MMAW)
•The welding current is provided by an AC or DC.
•The welding speed and feed of the electrode is controlled manually by the
welder himself. (Hence called as Manual Metal Arc Welding-MMAW)
180
Submerged Arc Welding
• Submerged arc welding is one of the arc welding process in which arc
is formed in between the continuously fed filler wire electrode and
the work piece.
• In this process arc is submerged in the granular flux to protect from

the atmospheric contamination.
181
Submerged Arc Welding
Wire
Air Solid slag

Flux
Molten slag
Arc
Solid weld metal
Molten pool of electrode,

flux and base metal
182
www.welspun.com
183
Workmen training program Workmen training programme l 183
www.welspun.com
Submerged Arc welding
Internal & external welding on pipe carried out by submerged arc welding
process.
Internal Welding Process External Welding Process
184
Application of SAW
• Mass production industries due to its higher deposition rate for the
optimum speed ( line pipe manufacturing plant).
• Higher thickness application
• Ship building and pressure vessels
• In manufacturing of steel pipes.
185
Safety Practice

Safety guiding principle
“keep currents and voltages inside apparatus and away from our
bodies”
» Inherently safe - Low voltage / low current

» Enclosures
» Insulation
» Safe & secure connections
187
Electrical cables & plugs
Mains cable
– Brown Live -
power
– Blue Neutral
– Green/yellow Earth

188
188
Electrical cables & plugs
Mains cable
– Brown Live power
– Blue Neutral
– Green/yellow
Earth
L

189
Live, Neutral, Earth & Fuses
E
190

191

RCD Residual Current Device
RCCB Residual Current Circuit
Breaker
ELCB Electric Leakage Circuit
Breaker
MCB Magnetic Circuit Breakers
RCBO Residual Current Breaker

with Overcurrent protection
– current
L difference of >30 mA
L
– for a duration of >30 ms
N
N
E

January 2008 Ver 1.1 192
– The Live and Neutral wires carry current around the circuit
– The Earth wire is there to protect you.

• The Earth wire can act like a back-up Neutral wire,
• Many appliances have metal cases e.g. kettles, toasters, dishwashers,
washing machines etc.
– The Fuse is very thin piece of wire.
• The wire has a quite low melting point. As current flows through the
wire it heats up.
• If too large a current flows it melts, thus breaking the circuit
• Use appropriate fuse size/rating
– Additional safety devices - RCDs, ELCBs, MCBs

193
Guidelines
• Use low & safe voltages
» EU 230 VAC / US 110 VAC
• Select equipment appropriate for environment & use
• Use equipment as per manufacturer’s instruction & design
• Ensure adequate maintenance
• Insulate and enclose live parts
• Prevent conducting parts from becoming live. Earth,
double insulation separate supply from earth, limit
electric power

194
Electrocution
• Response: Immediately cut power, red buttons / switch / plug
• If in any doubt - Do not touch victim.
• One hand behind back, stand on insulation, tip with back of

hand
• Use insulating rod / stick to move wires from victim.
• Call for assistance
• Talk & reassure victim
• If unconscious then use first aid, and hospitalise

195
Electrical Hazards & Personal Safety
– Where
• Office & home 95%
• Laboratory 5%
» Trailing wires, faulty wires
– Mains
• Avoid direct working with mains. Use only low voltages (tension )
• Check all leads for: Fraying, Proper clamping, Proper earthing.
– Repairing
• Competency required
• Remove fuse, use phase tester

196
Summary
• Awareness of electrical safety
• Introduction to the source of electrical dangers
• Your responsibility to take care of yourself and

others

197

Basic Electricity

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Basic Electricity

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WORKMEN TRAINING PROGRAM

BASIC ELEMENTS OF ELECTRICAL

Workmen training programme l 1

To know the basics of Electrical system.

Workmen training programme l 2

• Application of Electrical maintenance with respect to WELSPUN plant.

• How do I apply the knowledge in my work place.

Light bulb (or other load)

Resistance in series sum together when calculating total resistance

What is the current in the circuit below?

What is the resistance of the light bulb?

• Total resistance will be less than the smallest resistor**

 Direct current (DC) flows in one direction it remains steady.

Same definitions apply to alternating voltage (AC voltage):

 DC voltage has a fixed polarity.

 AC voltage switches polarity back and forth.

• Example – you could say that…

– Amps means flow of electrons from one point to another point.

– Volts means potential difference between two points.

o One period occupies exactly 360º of a sine waveform

o This example shows four cycles per second (4 Hz)

o Conversions between period and frequency

• The opposition to the flow of an electric current, producing heat.

• The greater the resistance, the less current gets through.

• Good conductors have low resistance.

• Material of wire – aluminum and copper have low resistance

• Thickness – the thicker the wire the lower the resistance

• Length – shorter wire has lower resistance

• Temperature – lower temperature has lower resistance

• The measure of energy given to the charge flowing in a circuit.

• Resistance = Voltage / Current

• Ohms = Volts / Amps

• A power cable is an assembly of two or more electrical conductors,

• Power cables is installed as permanent wiring within buildings, buried in

• Cables consist of three major components:

Workmen training programme l 23

The construction of cable depends on three main factors:

• Working voltage: Thickness of the insulation

• Current-carrying capacity: Cross-sectional size of the

Workmen training programme l 24

• Cable selection for types of electrical cables at working voltages up to 1

Workmen training programme l 25

Twisted Pairs Cable

Workmen training programme l 26

Flexible & hook-up wires are used in low

These wires are composed of high graded

Workmen training programme l 27

These cables have low conductor resistance.

Workmen training programme l 28

Workmen training programme l 29

Connection is made with,

Workmen training programme l 30

• It is a machine that changes mechanical energy to electrical energy

Workmen training programme l Basics of Electrical

Workmen training programme l 36

A MCB (Miniature circuit Breaker) is a

MCB is a device for overload and short circuit

These are used in residential & commercial

It has a higher interrupting current rating

• THESE ARE THE CIRCUIT BREAKER WHICH ARE GENERALLY

Workmen training programme l 40

A residual current device (RCD), or residual

• An Earth Leakage Circuit Breaker (ELCB) is a safety device used in electrical