Logic

 Logic is the study of reasons

 Logic is the study of good reasoning, and in particular,
what makes good reasoning good.
 Study of logic , does not look at kinds of reasoning:
instead, logic concerns itself with reasons for believing
something instead of something else. For beliefs are
special.
 We will call the things we believe (or disbelieve)
propositions which is expressed by using sentences
 An argument is a list of propositions, called the premises,
followed by a word such as ‘therefore’, or ‘so’, and then
another proposition, called the conclusion.
 Logic

 Here are some examples of sentences expressing

 propositions:
 I am studying logic.
 If you like, I will cook dinner tonight.
 Queensland has won the Sheffield Shield.
 The moon is made of green cheese.
 Most wars are horrible.
 2+7=9.
 The mind is not the brain.
 Propositional Logic

 propositional logic (or truth-functional logic)

 It is branch of deductive reasoning that deals with the logical relationships
among statements.
 So propositional logic helps us assess the validity of an argument without
being distracted by non- formal elements such as the language used to
express content.
 Propositional logic takes this symbolization to another level by using
symbols to stand not just for statements but also for the relationships
between statements-relationships that we specified previously with logical
connective words, or connectives, such as "if ... then" and "or. We use use
symbols to represent and clarify these relationships

 Benefits
 The first is a more thorough understanding of the power, precision, and
dynamics of deductive reasoning.
 The second is the ability to evaluate the validity of very complex arguments.
 How complex
 Four logical connectors

Symbol Meaning Example

& Conjunction ( and) p&q
Alice rode her bike, and
John walked
v Disjunction (or) pvq
Either Alice rode her bike,
or John
walked.
~ Negation (not) ~p
Alice did not ride her
bike.
(or)
It is not the case that
Alice rode her bike.
→ Conditional (if-then) p→q
If Alice rode her bike,
then John walked.
 Truth value

 Every statement has a truth value. That is, a

statement is either true or false.
 A true statement has a truth value of true, and a
false statement has a truth value of false. In
contrast, questions and exclamations don‘t have
truth values.
 Why

 we've converted an argument into its symbolic form

 we know all the possible truth values of the
argument's variables (statements)/circumstances a
statement is true or false due to the influence of the
logical connectives.
 quickly uncover the validity or invalidity of the whole
argument.
 Given the possible truth values of some statements in the
argument, and given the statements' relationships with one
another as governed by the logical connectives, we could infer
the possible truth values of all the other statements..
 conjunction.

 Julio is here, and Juan is here.(Others include but,

yet, nevertheless, while, also, and moreover)
 Symbolize p & q
 To identify the possible truth values of a conjunction,
we can create a truth table, which is just a graphic
way of displaying all the possibilities. Here's the
truth table for the conjunction p & q.
For conjunction truth table , it is only true , when
both are true
 Disjunction

 In a conjunction we assert that p and q are both true

and that if just one conjunct is false, the whole
conjunction is false. But in a disjunction, we assert
that either p or q is true (though both might be) and
that even if one of the statements is false, the whole
disjunction is still true. Each statement in a
disjunction is called a disjunct.
 Example

 Either Joan is angry, or Ann is serene.

 Symbolized p v q
 Exclusive vs inclusive sense ("one or the other, or
both," which is called the inclusive sense)
Disjunction (Truth Table)
 Negation

 A negation is the denial of a statement, which we indicate

with the word "not” or a term that means the same thing.
 Example
The price of eggs in China is steep" negation terms is The
price of eggs in China is not steep.
Symbolized as –p
 One interesting consequence of this reversal is that a
double negation is the same thing as no negation.
 Example
 The price of eggs in China is not steep
 Negation of this will end up with positive statement , The
price of eggs in China is steep.
Negation
 Conditional

 The basic form of a conditional is "if ... then .

 (modus ponens, denying the antecedent, etc.).
 Example : "If the cat is on the mat, then the rat will
stay home.”
 where an arrow represents the connective
 in a conditional, the first part (p) is the antecedent,
and the second part (q) is the consequent
Conditional
 Conditional

 variations in conditional statements, it's important

to translate conditionals into standard form before
you try to assess their validity. To do that, you must
identify the antecedent and consequent and put
them in proper order (antecedent before
consequent).
 Examples

1. You will fall off that ladder if you're not careful.

If you're not careful, you will fall off that ladder.
2. Gregory will excel in school, provided that he studies hard.
If Gregory studies hard, then he will excel in school.
3. Jenna would not have wrecked the car if she had not tried to
beat that light
If Jenna had not tried to beat that light, she would not have wrecked the car.
4. I'll ride the bus only if am late.
If I ride the bus, then am late.
5. Whenever I think, I get a headache.
If I think, I get a headache.
6. I will walk the dog unless it's raining.
If it's not raining, I will walk the dog.
 Examples

Identify the following statements as conjunction,

disjunction or conditional, identify its component
statements and indicate the symbols used for connectives
1. The Democrats raised taxes, and the Republicans cut programs.
2. Either I walk home, or I drive Ralph's car.
3. If the Yankees win, they will be in the World Series.
4. It is not the case that the Yankees won.
5. If Taslima can read your mind, then you're in trouble.
6. The newspaper ad was either misleading, or it was meant as a joke.
7. If God is all-powerful, then he can prevent evil in the world.
8. He supported the revolution, and he was arrested without being
charged.
 Exercise

Translate the following in the symbolic form, use the letters

in parenthesis to indicate the component statement
1. Either Herman does his homework, or he goofs off. (p, q)
2. If Herman does his homework, he will have time to go to the party.
(s, t)
3. It is not the case that Hans had access to the murder weapon. (a)
4. People die, but books live forever. (e, f)
5. Aiming that loaded gun at someone is not a good idea. (c)
6. Provided Alex returns the money, he will not be prosecuted. (x, y)
7. Human cloning will become widespread, unless the government
interferes.
(p, q)
8. He will not benefit from instruction, and he will not learn on his
own.
(g, h)
 Exercise

9. Buffalo gets a lot of snow in winter, and everybody hates it. (j,
k)
10. His tampering with the judicial system is not appropriate.
(b)
11. You will eventually discover the correct formula if you work
systematically. (x, y)
12. He's either a nut or a brilliant eccentric. (p, q)
13. If Socrates is a man, he is mortal. (d, e)
14. It is not the case that the zoo won't accept any more
mammals. (p)
15. Either disembodied spirits exist, or psychic hoaxes are
rampant. (s, t)
16. Mickey Mouse wanted to get married, but Minnie demurred.
(p, q)
 Exercise 3

Indicate which of the following statements are true and which

are false.
1. Dogs are mammals v Snakes are marsupials
2. Alligators are reptiles & Dogs are reptiles
3. ~Dogs are reptiles & ~ Alligators are mammals
4. Dogs can bark → Dogs can talk
5. Dogs can talk → Dogs are reptiles
6. ~Dogs are mammals v Snakes are reptiles
7. ~Alligators are reptiles → Alligators are mammals
8. Alligators can bark & - Dogs are reptiles
9. ~Dogs are mammals v Snakes are reptiles
10. ~ Dogs are mammals →~ Snakes are reptiles
 Exercise 4

 indicate which of the following symbolized statements are

true and which are false. Assume that the variables a, b, and c
are true, and p, q, and r are false.
1. a &p
2. b v r
3. c ~ q
4. -b v c
-5. -b ~-q
6. a&-q
7. b v-p
8.a&c
9. b ~-c
10. P~-r
 Exercise 6

1.If Joshua fought the battle of Jericho, then the walls must have come
tumbling down.
2. Either democracy is losing ground in the United States, or it is being enhanced
in Third World countries.
3. Either the ancient Greek temples were built by ancient Greeks, or they
were built by Romans who imitated the Greeks.
4. The Egyptian pyramids were not built by ancient alien visitors from
space, and they certainly were not built by Egyptians taught by alien
visitors from space.
5. Science will never triumph over religion unless science can offer a spiritual
experience.
6. If World War 11 was a just war, then the Gulf War was a just war.
7. I will fly to Detroit, but [ will not meet you in Dallas.
8. It is not the case that philosophy is dead, and it is not true that science
has replaced it.
9. Provided I pass my logic course, I will finally be able to fathom political
arguments.
10. The federal deficit is out of control, but most Americans are not worried.
 Simple arguments

Ducks have webbed feet.

Ducks have feathers.
Therefore, ducks have webbed feet and ducks have
feathers.
We symbolize the argument like this:
p
q
:.p & q
 Complex argument

If the icebergs melt, the lowlands will flood.

The icebergs will not melt.
Therefore, the lowlands will not flood.

P→ q
~p
:. ~q
Either we fight for freedom or we give in to tyranny.
We won't fight for freedom.
Therefore, we will give in to tyranny.

pvq
~p
There for ~q
Truth table
Either we fight for freedom or we give in to tyranny.
We won't fight for freedom.
Therefore, we will give in to tyranny.

pvq
~p
Therefore q
 Tricky Arguments

 Arguments can get more complicated when variables

and connectives are intricately combined into larger
compounds and when the number of variables
increases.
 truth tables can help you unravel complexities.
 Examples

p ~ (q & r)
p
:. ~(q & r)
~(q & r)
It is not the case that Leo sings the blue and fats sings
the blue
~q & ~r
Either Leo does not sing the blue or Fats does not sing
the blue
 Example

If the gods intervene, then neither peace nor war can

change the destiny of the nation.
 p-The gods intervene.
 q-Peace can change the destiny of the nation.
 r-War can change the destiny of the nation.
 P → ~ (q v r)
 Example

 Either Jay Lena is funny or the show is rigged, or

the network has made a bad investment.
 Example

p-Jay Leno is funny.

q-The show is rigged.
r-The network has made a bad investment.
(p v q) v r
Example
 Example

If Billy shot the sheriff but he didn't shoot the deputy,

then he's guilty of only one crime. But it's not true
that he shot the sheriff but didn't shoot the deputy.
Therefore, it's not the case that he's guilty of only
one crime.
p-Billy shot the sheriff.
q-He shot the deputy.
r-He's guilty of only one crime.
 Example

(p & ~q) → r
~(p & ~q)
:. ~r
Example