Reflection & Refraction of Light4 - 3-1

Reflection and Refraction of
Light
Light has a dual nature.
Light has a number of physical properties,

some associated with waves and others with
particles.
In this module, we will focus on the aspects of

light through the wave model.
Outline
• Light as an E-M Wave; The E-M Spectrum
• The Ray Model of Light
• The Speed of Light and Index of Refraction
• Refraction: Snell’s Law
• Reflection: Image Formation by a Plane Mirror
• Formation of Images by Spherical Mirrors
• Visible Spectrum and Dispersion
• Total Internal Reflection; Fiber Optics
Light as an Electromagnetic Wave and
the Electromagnetic Spectrum
Light is that form of energy
which enables people to ‘see
things’. For a person to see
any object, light energy must
enter the eye.
This energy is converted into a ‘picture’ in a very complex process, but in a
simplified version as follows:
 Light enters the eye through a hole in the iris, called the pupil;
Electromagnetic (EM) energy is radiant energy

which moves with the velocity of light
(300,000km/sec).
This energy or radiation is generated by anybody

whose temperature is above absolute zero 0° i.e. (-
273 ° C).
EM radiation can be viewed as either a wave (wave

theory of Newton) or as a stream of particles
travelling in straight lines (Corpuscular theory)
EM radiation viewed as a wave (EM waves) travel at
a speed of 3 × 108 ms−1 in a vacuum and can be
described in terms of their:
 Frequency (f)
- number of waveforms per second or Hertz (Hz)
 Wavelength (λ)
- distance between successive peaks (or troughs)
of a waveform in meters.
 Period (T)
- the time, in seconds needed for one full wave to
pass a fixed point.
T  f
The frequency of an electromagnetic wave

is related to its wavelength and to the
speed of light (c):
The totality of array of all electromagnetic

radiation that moves with the velocity of light,
characterized by wavelength or frequency is
called Electromagnetic Spectrum or
Electromagnetic Wavebands.
Electromagnetic waves can have any
wavelength; we have given different names to
different parts of the wavelength spectrum.
Humans experience electromagnetic waves

differently depending on their wavelength.
Our eyes are sensitive to visible light while

our skin is sensitive to infrared, and many
wavelengths we do not detect at all.
Calculate the wavelength
(a) of a 60-Hz EM wave,
(b) of a 93.3-MHz FM radio wave, and
(c) of a beam of visible red light from a
laser at frequency 4.74 x 1014 Hz.
Calculating the wavelength of a 60-Hz EM
wave:,
3 108 m / s 300,000,000m/s
c f   
60hertz 60hertz
 5,000,000m=5.0 10 m 6
Calculating the wavelength of a 93.3-MHz
FM radio wave:,
3 108 m / s 300,000,000m/s
c f   
60hertz 93.3MHz
300,000,000m/s
=  3.22m
93,300,000hertz
Calculating the wavelength of beam of

visible red light from a laser at
frequency 4.74 x 1014 Hz.
3 108 m / s 300,000,000m/s
c f   
60hertz 474,000,000,000,000hertz
=6.33 10-7 m
The antenna of a cell phone is often ¼
wavelength long. A particular cell phone has
an 8.5-cm-long straight rod for its antenna.
Estimate the operating frequency of this
phone.
The antenna of a cell phone is often ¼
wavelength long. A particular cell phone has
an 8.5-cm-long straight rod for its antenna.
Estimate the operating frequency of this
phone.
c  f
300,000,000m / s 300,000,000m / s
   880MHz
8.5 / 1/ 4  cm 0.34m
The Ray Model of Light
A series of parallel lines can be drawn to show the path of the
sunlight from the window to the floor.
This is not exactly accurate – no matter how hard you look, you
will not find unique lines of light in the sunbeam!
However, this is a good way to draw light. It is also a good way

to model light geometrically
These narrow, imaginary lines of light, is called light rays.
It can be drawn the same way: as straight lines between

objects, images, and optical devices.
It can be used to model mirrors, lenses, telescopes,

microscopes, and prisms.
Therefore the idea of a light ray is to indicate the direction that
light travels.
Light rays are imaginary lines with arrows and are merely used
to show the path that light travels. Light rays are not real.
The most important thing to remember is that our eyes can only
see an object when light rays from the object enters our eyes.
The object must be a source of light (for example a light bulb)

or else it must reflect light from a source (for example the
moon), and the reflected light enters our eyes.
Light very often travels in straight lines. We
represent light using rays, which are straight
lines emanating from an object. This is an
idealization, but is very useful for geometric
optics.
Investigation : Light travels in straight lines
Apparatus: a candle, matches and three sheets of paper.
Method:
1. Make a small hole in the middle of each of the three sheets of paper.
2. Light the candle.
3. Look at the burning candle through the hole in the first sheet of paper.
4. Place the second sheet of paper between you and the candle so that
you can still see the candle through the holes.
5. Now do the same with the third sheet so that you can still see the
candle. The sheets of paper must not touch each other.
You will notice that the holes in the
paper need to be in a straight line.
This shows that light travels in a straight

line. We cannot see around corners.
This also proves that light does not bend

around a corner, but travels straight.
Investigation : Light travels in straight lines
On a sunny day, stand outside and look at something in the

distance, for example a tree, a flower or a car.
From what we have learnt, we can see the tree, flower or

car because light from the object is entering our eye.
Now take a sheet of paper and hold it about 20 cm in front of your

face.
Can you still see the tree, flower or car? Why not?
The sheet of paper prevents
the light rays from reaching
the eye, and the eye cannot
see the object.
The Speed of Light and Index of
Refraction
Light changes direction when crossing a boundary from one medium
to another. This is called refraction.
Generally, light slows somewhat when traveling through a medium,

the speed of light in any material is therefore less than its speed in
vacuum. In fact, light travels at its maximum speed in vacuum.
The absolute index of refraction n of a medium is the ratio:
The index of refraction is a dimensionless number greater than

unity because v is always less than c. Furthermore, n is equal
to unity for vacuum.
The Speed of Light and Index of
Refraction
The indices of refraction for various substances are listed in the table below:
Refraction: Snell’s Law
Light changes direction when crossing a
boundary from one medium to another. This is
called refraction, and the angle the outgoing ray
makes with the normal is called the angle of
refraction.
Refraction is what makes objects half-
submerged in water look odd.
As light travels from one medium to another, its frequency does not
change but its wavelength does.
The relationship between index of refraction and wavelength

is obtained by dividing the first Equation by the second
If medium 1 is vacuum, or for all practical purposes air, then n1 = 1. Hence, it follows from
Equation that the index of refraction of any medium can be expressed as the ratio:
where λ is the wavelength of light in vacuum and λn is the
wavelength of light in the medium whose index of refraction is n.
From Equation above, we see that because n > 1, λn < λ
If we replace the v2 / v1 term in the equation with n1 / n2, we expressed the

equation in an alternative form to obtain the angle of refraction given by
Snell’s law as:
The angle of refraction depends
on the indices of refraction.
This means that the angle of incidence is less than the angle
of refraction and the light ray is bent away from the normal.
For a ray that lies along the normal

line, the angle of incidence is 0° and
This shows that if the light ray is incident at 0°, then the
angle of refraction is also 0° . The ray passes through the
surface unchanged, i.e. no refraction occurs.
Apparent Depth
Imagine a coin on the bottom of a shallow pool of water.
If you reach for the coin, you will miss it because the light rays from the coin are
refracted at the water’s surface.
Consider a light ray that travels from an underwater object to your eye. The ray
is refracted at the water surface and then reaches your eye.
Your eye does not know Snell’s Law; it assumes light rays travel in straight
lines. Your eye therefore sees the image of the coin at shallower location.
This shallower location is known as the apparent depth.
The refractive index of a medium can also be expressed as

Relative Index
A light ray with an angle of
incidence of 35° passes from
water to air. Find the angle of
refraction using Snell’s Law.
Solutions.
the refractive index is 1.333 for water
the refractive index is 1.0003 for air.
angle of incidence is 35°
using Snell’s Law, substitute values

A light ray with an angle of
incidence of 35° passes from
water to air. Find the angle of
refraction using Snell’s Law.
Solutions.

n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2 The light ray passes from a medium of
high refractive index to one of low
1.33sin 35  1sin  2 refractive index.
sin  2  0.763
Therefore, the light ray is bent away
 2  49.7 from the normal.
A light ray passes from water
to diamond with an angle of
incidence of 75°. Calculate the
angle of refraction.
Solutions.

A light ray passes from water
to diamond with an angle of
incidence of 75°. Calculate the
angle of refraction.
Solutions.

n1 sin 1  n2 sin  2 The light ray passes from a medium of
low refractive index to one of high
1.33sin 75  2.42 sin  2 refractive index.
sin  2  0.531
Therefore, the light ray is bent towards
 2  32.1 the normal.
A beam of light of wavelength 550nm traveling
in air is incident on a slab of transparent
material. The incident beam makes an angle
of 40.0° with the normal, and the refracted
beam makes an angle of 26.0° with the
normal. Find the index of refraction of the
material.
Using Snell’s law of refraction and

taking n1 = 1.00 for air:
A beam of light of wavelength 550nm traveling in air is incident
on a slab of transparent material. The incident beam makes an
angle of 40.0° with the normal, and the refracted beam makes an
angle of 26.0° with the normal. Find the index of refraction of the
material.
Solution Using Snell’s law of refraction and taking n1 = 1.00 for

air, we have:
From indices of refraction table, the material could be fused quartz.

A light ray of wavelength 589 nm traveling through air is
incident on a smooth, flat slab of crown glass at an angle of
30.0° to the normal. Find the angle of refraction.
A light ray of wavelength 589 nm traveling through air is
incident on a smooth, flat slab of crown glass at an angle of
30.0° to the normal. Find the angle of refraction.
Solution We rearrange Snell’s law of refraction to obtain
n1 = 1.00 for air and n2 = 1.52 for crown glass. Therefore,
Because this is less than the incident angle of 30°, the refracted ray is
bent toward the normal, as expected.
Its change in direction is called the angle of deviation and is given by:
A laser in a compact disc player generates light that has a
wavelength of 780 nm in air. Find the speed of this light once it
enters the plastic of a compact disc (n = 1.55). What is the
wavelength of this light in the plastic?
A laser in a compact disc player generates light that has a
wavelength of 780 nm in air. Find the speed of this light once it
enters the plastic of a compact disc (n = 1.55). What is the
wavelength of this light in the plastic?
Solution We expect to find a value less than 3.00 x 108 m/s

because n > 1. We can obtain the speed of light in the plastic
by using:
the wavelength of this light in the plastic can be obtained using:

Light traveling in air strikes
a flat piece of uniformly
thick glass at an incident
angle of 60°, as shown. If
the index of refraction of
the glass is 1.50, (a) what is
the angle of refraction θA in
the glass; (b) what is the
angle θB at which the ray
emerges from the glass?
Light traveling in air strikes a flat piece of

uniformly thick glass at an incident angle of
60°, as shown. If the index of refraction of the
glass is 1.50, (a) what is the angle of refraction
θA in the glass; (b) what is the angle θB at which
the ray emerges from the glass?
Solution:
a. Applying Snell’s law gives
sin θA = 0.577, or θA = 35.3°.
b. Snell’s law gives
sin θB = 0.866, or θB = 60°.
The outgoing ray is parallel to the

incoming ray.
A coin is placed at the bottom of a 40 cm deep pond. The refractive index

for water is 1.33. How deep does the coin appear to be?

n  1.33
realdepth  40cm
apparentdepth  ?
40
1.33 
x
40
x  30.08cm
1.33
The coin appears to be 30.08cm deep.
A R1 coin appears to be 7 cm deep in a colourless liquid. The depth of

the liquid is 10.43 cm.
1. Determine the refractive index of the liquid.
2. Identify the liquid.

n?
realdepth  7cm
apparentdepth  10.43cm
10.43cm
n  1.49
7cm
Using the indices of refraction table above, The liquid is an

80% sugar solution.
Reflection; Image Formation by a
Plane Mirror
When you smile into a mirror, you see your own face smiling back at you.
This is caused by the reflection of light rays on the mirror. Reflection
occurs when a light ray bounces off a surface.
When a light ray traveling in one medium encounters a boundary with

another medium, part of the incident light is reflected.
The figure below shows rays of a beam of light incident on a smooth,

mirror-like, reflecting surface.
Law of reflection: the angle of reflection (that the ray makes with the
normal to a surface) always equal the angle of incidence and that the
reflected ray always lies in the plane of incidence.
Plane Mirror
The incoming light ray is called the incident ray.
The light ray moving away from the surface is

the reflected ray.
The most important characteristic of these rays

is their angles in relation to the reflecting
surface. These angles are measured with
respect to the normal of the surface.
The normal is an imaginary line perpendicular

to the surface.
The angle of incidence, θi is measured between

the incident ray and the surface normal.
The angle of reflection, θr is measured between

the reflected ray and the surface normal.
When a ray of light is reflected, the reflected ray

lies in the same plane as the incident ray and
the normal. This plane is called the plane of
incidence.
Plane Mirror
Specular (mirror) reflection are where the reflected rays are parallel to
each other. The direction of a reflected ray is in the plane perpendicular
to the reflecting surface that contains the incident rays. With specular
reflection (from a mirror), your eye must be in the correct position.
If the reflecting surface is rough, the surface reflects the rays not
as a parallel set but in various directions. Reflection from any
rough surface is known as diffuse reflection. With diffuse
reflection, your eye sees reflected light at all angles.
Plane Mirror
When light reflects from a rough surface, The incident rays
are parallel but the reflected rays are not. Each point on the
surface has a different normal. This means the angle of
incidence is different at each point. the law of reflection still
holds, but the angle of incidence varies.
In this class, we will focus only on specular reflection and

use the term reflection to mean specular reflection.
Plane Mirror
Mirrors.
A mirror is a highly reflective surface. The most common mirrors
are flat and are known as plane mirrors e.g. household mirrors.
They are made of a flat piece of glass with a thin layer of silver
nitrate or aluminium on the back.
However, other mirrors are curved and are either convex mirrors
or are concave mirrors.
The reflecting properties of all three types of mirrors will be

discussed in this section.
Plane Mirror
Image Formation.
An image is a representation of an
object formed by a mirror or lens.
Light from the image is seen.
If you place a candle in front of a

mirror, you now see two candles.
The actual, physical candle is called

the object and the picture you see in
the mirror is called the image.
The object is the source of the

incident rays.
The image is the picture that is

formed by the reflected rays.
Plane Mirror
Image Formation.
The object could be an actual source that
emits light, such as a light bulb or a
candle.
More commonly, the object reflects light

from another source. When you look at
your face in the mirror, your face does not
emit light. Instead, light from a light bulb
or from the sun reflects off your face and
then hits the mirror. However, in working
with light rays, it is easiest to pretend the
light is coming from the object.
An image formed by reflection may be real

or virtual.
Plane Mirror
Image Formation.
A real image occurs when light
rays actually intersect at the
image. A real image is inverted,
or upside down.
Plane Mirror
Image Formation.
Virtual images are images formed in places
where light does not really reach. Light
does not really pass through the mirror to
create the image; it only appears to an
observer as though the light were coming
from behind the mirror.
Whenever a mirror creates an image which

is virtual, the image will always be located
behind the mirror where light does not
really pass.
A virtual image occurs when light rays do

not actually meet at the image. Instead,
you ”see” the image because your eye
projects light rays backward. A virtual
image is erect, or right side up (upright).
Plane Mirror
Image Formation.
You can tell the two types apart by putting
a screen at the location of the image. A real
image can be formed on the screen
because the light rays actually meet there.
A virtual image cannot be seen on a
screen, since it is not really there.
A virtual image is upright, on the opposite

side of the mirror as the object, and light
does not actually reach it.
Plane Mirror
Image Formation.
To describe objects and images, we

need to know their locations and their
sizes.
The distance from the mirror to the

object is the object distance, do.
The distance from the mirror to the

image is the image distance, di.
Plane Mirror
Image Formation by a Plane Mirror.
When you look into a mirror, you see an image of

yourself. The image created in the mirror has the
following properties:
1. The image is virtual.
2. The image is the same distance behind the

mirror as the object is in front of the mirror.
3. The image is laterally inverted. This means that

the image is inverted from side to side.
4. The image is the same size as the object.
5. The image is upright.
A mirror obeys the Law of Reflection.

Plane Mirror
What you see when you look into a plane (flat)

mirror is an image, which appears to be behind
the mirror.
Plane Mirror
This is called a virtual image, as the light does

not go through it. The distance of the image
from the mirror is equal to the distance of the
object from the mirror.
Plane Mirror
Reflection from flat mirrors.
We draw ray diagrams to predict the image that is formed by a

plane mirror.
A ray diagram is a geometrical picture that is used for analyzing

the images formed by mirrors and lenses. They are used to find
the position and size and whether the image is real or virtual.
We draw a few characteristic rays from the object to the mirror.

We then follow ray-tracing rules to find the path of the rays and
locate the image.
Plane Mirror
Ray diagrams for a Plane Mirror
The following should be remembered when drawing ray diagrams:

1. Objects are represented by arrows. The length of the arrow
represents the height of the object.
2. If the arrow points upwards, then the object is described as

upright or erect. If the arrow points downwards then the object
is described as inverted.
3. If the object is real, then the arrow is drawn with a solid line.
4. If the object is virtual, then the arrow is drawn with a dashed

line.
5. It is convenient to have a central line that runs perpendicular

to the mirror. This imaginary line is called the principal axis.
Plane Mirror
Plane Mirror
Plane Mirror
Ray diagram to predict the image formed by a plane mirror.

Plane Mirror
Suppose a light ray leaves the top of the object traveling parallel to the principal axis.
The ray will hit the mirror at an angle of incidence of 0 degrees. We say that the ray hits
the mirror normally. According to the law of reflection, the ray will be reflected at 0
degrees.
The ray then bounces back in the same direction. We also project the ray back behind
the mirror because this is what your eye does.
Another light ray leaves the top of the object and hits the mirror at its centre. This ray
will be reflected at the same angle as its angle of incidence, as shown.
If we project the ray backward behind the mirror, it will eventually cross the projection
of the first ray we drew. We have found the location of the image! It is a virtual image
since it appears in an area that light cannot actually reach (behind the mirror).
You can see from the diagram that the image is erect and is the same size as the
object. This is exactly as we expected.
We use a dashed line to indicate that the image is virtual.

Plane Mirror
Lateral Magnification for a Plane Mirror
The ratio of image height, hi, to object height, ho, is called

Lateral Magnification m which is unity for a plane mirror
hi
m
ho
Plane Mirror
Two flat mirrors are perpendicular to each
other. An incoming beam of light makes an
angle of 15° with the first mirror as shown.
What angle will the outgoing beam make with
the second mirror?
Plane Mirror
Two flat mirrors are perpendicular to each other. An incoming beam of light
makes an angle of 15° with the first mirror as shown. What angle will the
outgoing beam make with the second mirror?
θ1 + 15° = 90°
θ1 + 75° = θ2 (by the law of reflection)
θ2 + θ3 + 90° = 180° (sum of angles in a triangle)
θ3 = 180°- 90°- 75 °
θ3 = θ4 = 15° (by the law of reflection)
θ5 = 90°- 15° = 75°
The outgoing ray from the first mirror makes an angle of 15° with it, and an
angle of 75° with the second mirror. The outgoing beam then makes an
angle of 75° with the second mirror (and is parallel to the incoming beam).
Plane Mirror
How tall must a full-length mirror be?
A boy is 1.5m tall and can just see his image in a
vertical plane mirror 3.0m away. His eyes are
1.40m from the floor level. Determine the
vertical dimension and elevation of the shortest
mirror in which he could see his full image.
Plane Mirror
A boy is 1.5m tall and can just see his image in a
vertical plane mirror 3.0m away. His eyes are 1.40m
from the floor level. Determine the vertical
dimension and elevation of the shortest mirror in
which he could see his full image.
Let AB represent the boy. His eyes are at E.

A’B’ is the image of AB in mirror MR
DH represent the shortest mirror necessary
for the eye to view image A’B’.
Triangles DEC and DA’M are congruent so
Triangles HRB’ and HCE are congruent so
The dimension of the mirror is
And its elevation is

Plane Mirror
How tall must a full-length mirror be?
A woman 1.60 m tall stands in front of a vertical plane
mirror. What is the minimum height of the mirror, and
how close must its lower edge be to the floor, if she is to
be able to see her whole body? Assume her eyes are 10
cm below the top of her head.
Plane Mirror
A woman 1.60 m tall stands in front of a
vertical plane mirror. What is the minimum
height of the mirror, and how close must its
lower edge be to the floor, if she is to be able
to see her whole body? Assume her eyes
are 10 cm below the top of her head.
Solution:
At the minimum height, light
from her feet strikes the
bottom edge of the mirror and
reflects into her eyes; light
from the top of her head
strikes the top edge of the
mirror and reflects into her
eyes. Geometry then shows
that the mirror must be 80 cm
high, with its bottom 75 cm off
the floor.
Formation of Images by Spherical
Mirrors
Spherical mirrors are shaped like sections of
a sphere, and may be reflective on either the
inside (concave) or outside (convex).
Mirrors
Mirrors
We use ray diagrams to determine where an

image will be. For mirrors, we use three key
rays, all of which begin on the object:
1. A ray parallel to the axis; after reflection it
passes through the focal point.
2. A ray through the focal point; after reflection
it is parallel to the axis.
3. A ray perpendicular to the mirror; it reflects
back on itself.
Mirrors
32-3 Formation of Images by
Spherical Mirrors
The intersection of these three rays gives the

position of the image of that point on the
object. To get a full image, we can do the
same with other points (two points suffice for
may purposes).
Mirrors
concave mirror
When a sphere is cut and then polished to a reflective surface
on the inside a concave mirror is obtained.
A concave mirror is also known as a converging mirror. Light

rays appear to converge to the focal point of a concave mirror.
As with a plane mirror, the principal axis of a concave mirror

is a line that is perpendicular to the centre of the mirror.
Mirrors
concave mirror
Concave mirror has this important characteristic:
the centre of curvature is the centre of the sphere from which

the mirror is cut.
Mirrors
concave mirror
The principal focus of a spherical mirror is the point F where rays
parallel to and very close to the central or optical axis of the mirror are
focused. This focus is real for a concave mirror and virtual for a
convex mirror. It is located on the optical axis and midway between
the centre of curvature C and the mirror.
Concave mirrors form inverted real images of objects placed beyond

the principal focus. If the object is between the principal focus and the
mirror, the image is virtual, erect, and enlarged.
Mirrors
concave mirror
It also has a distance that is half-way between the centre of curvature
and the mirror on the principal axis.
This point is known as the focal point where the rays converge. If the
curvature is small, the focus is much more precise and the distance from
the focal point to the mirror is known as the focal length (symbol f).
The focal point of a mirror is the midpoint of a line segment joining the
vertex and the centre of curvature. It is the position at which all parallel
rays are focused.
Since the focal point is the midpoint of the line segment joining the
vertex and the center of curvature, the focal length would be one-half the
radius of curvature.
Mirrors
concave mirror
A real image can be cast on a screen; it is inverted, and on the same side
of the mirror as the object.
Below is a concave mirror with three rays drawn to locate the image.
Each incident ray is reflected according to the Law of Reflection.
The intersection of the reflected rays gives the location of the image.
Here the image created by a concave mirror is real and inverted as
compared to the virtual and erect image created by a plane mirror.
Mirrors
If an object is outside the center of curvature of a
concave mirror, its image will be inverted,
smaller, and real.
Mirrors
concave mirror
Mirrors
Parallel rays striking a

spherical mirror do not
all converge at exactly
the same place if the
curvature of the mirror
is large; this is called
spherical aberration.
Spherical aberration can be avoided by using a parabolic

reflector; these are more difficult and expensive to make,
and so are used only when necessary, such as in
research telescopes.
Mirrors
convex mirror
As with a plane mirror, the principal axis of a convex mirror is
a line that is perpendicular to the centre of the mirror.
For a convex mirror, the focal point is behind the mirror.
A convex mirror has a negative focal length because the focal

point is behind the mirror.
Convex mirror with principle axis,

focal point (F) and
centre of curvature (C).
The centre of the mirror is the optical centre (O).
Mirrors
convex mirror
It obeys the laws of reflection and
Light appears to come from the image.
A convex mirror is also known as a diverging mirror. Light
rays appear to diverge
from the focal point of a convex mirror.
The image created by a convex mirror is shown below:
Mirrors
convex mirror
convex mirror with three rays drawn to locate the image. Each incident
ray is reflected according to the Law of Reflection.
The reflected rays diverge. If the reflected rays are extended behind the
mirror, then their intersection gives the location of the image behind the
mirror. The images are diminished (smaller than the object) in size.
For a convex mirror, the image is virtual and upright as compared to the
real and inverted image created by a concave mirror.
Mirrors
For a convex mirror,
the image is always
virtual, upright, and
smaller.
Mirrors
The properties of mirrors are summarized in the
table below.
PLANE CONCAVE CONVEX

- Converging Diverging
Virtual image Real image Virtual image
upright Inverted Upright
Image behind mirror Image in front of mirror Image behind mirror
Mirrors
Mirror Equations for both concave and convex mirrors:
Using geometry, we find that the focal length is half the radius of
curvature:
Mirrors
Geometrically, we can derive an equation that relates the object
distance, image distance, and focal length of the mirror
Mirrors
or
Mirrors
Mirrors
The size of the image formed by a spherical mirror is given by:
The negative sign indicates that the image is inverted.

This object is between the center of curvature and the
focal point, and its image is larger, inverted, and real.
Mirrors
We can also find the magnification (ratio of
image height to object height):
The negative sign indicates that the image is

inverted. This object is between the center of
curvature and the focal point, and its image is
larger, inverted, and real.
Mirrors
Example:
A concave mirror forms an image that is 4.8cm
high. The height of the object is 1.6cm.
Calculate the magnification of the mirror.
Mirrors
Example:
A concave mirror forms an image that is 4.8cm
high. The height of the object is 1.6cm.
Calculate the magnification of the mirror.
Mirrors
Example 32-4: Image in a concave mirror.

A 1.50-cm-high diamond ring is placed 20.0
cm from a concave mirror with radius of
curvature 30.0 cm. Determine (a) the
position of the image, and (b) its size.
Mirrors
Example 32-4: Image in a concave mirror.

A 1.50-cm-high diamond ring is placed 20.0
cm from a concave mirror with radius of
curvature 30.0 cm. Determine (a) the
position of the image, and (b) its size.
a. Using the mirror equation, we find di = 60.0 cm.
b. Using the magnification equation,

we find M = -3.00 and hi = -4.5 cm.
Mirrors
Example 32-6: Object closer to concave mirror.
A 1.00-cm-high object is placed 10.0 cm from a
concave mirror whose radius of curvature is 30.0
cm. (a) Draw a ray diagram to locate (approximately)
the position of the image. (b) Determine the position
of the image and the magnification analytically.
Formation of Images by Spherical Mirrors
Object closer to concave mirror.
A 1.00-cm-high object is placed 10.0 cm from a concave mirror whose radius of curvature is 30.0
cm. (a) Draw a ray diagram to locate (approximately) the position of the image. (b) Determine the
position of the image and the magnification analytically.
Object placed within the focal point F. The image is behind the mirror and is virtual,
[Note that the vertical scale (height of object = 1.0 cm) is different from the horizontal
(OA = 10.0 cm) for ease of drawing, and reduces the precision of the drawing.]
Solution: a. The figure shows the ray diagram and the image; the image is upright,
larger in size than the object, and virtual.
b. Using the mirror equation gives di = -30.0 cm. Using the magnification equation gives
M = +3.00.
Mirrors
Problem Solving: Spherical Mirrors
1. Draw a ray diagram; the image is where the rays
intersect.
2. Apply the mirror and magnification equations.
3. Sign conventions: if the object, image, or focal point
is on the reflective side of the mirror, its distance is
positive, and negative otherwise. Magnification is
positive if image is upright, negative otherwise.
4. Check that your solution agrees with the ray diagram.
Mirrors
An external rearview car mirror
is convex with a radius of
curvature of 16.0 m. Determine
the location of the image and
its magnification for an object
10.0 m from the mirror.
Mirrors
An external rearview car mirror
is convex with a radius of
curvature of 16.0 m. Determine
the location of the image and
its magnification for an object
10.0 m from the mirror.
Solution:
A convex mirror has a negative
focal length, giving di = -4.4 m and
M = +0.44.
The image is virtual, upright, and

smaller than the object.
Visible Spectrum and Dispersion
The visible spectrum contains the full
range of wavelengths of light that are
visible to the human eye.
The index of refraction of many transparent
materials, such as glass and water, varies
slightly with wavelength. This is how prisms
and water droplets create rainbows from
sunlight.
This spreading of light into the full
spectrum is called dispersion.
Total Internal Reflection; Fiber
Optics
If light passes into a medium with a smaller
index of refraction, the angle of refraction is
larger. There is an angle of incidence for which
the angle of refraction will be 90°; this is called
the critical angle:
The critical angle is the angle of incidence where

the angle of reflection is 90◦. The light must
shine from a dense to a less dense medium.
Optics
If the angle of incidence is bigger than this critical angle,
the refracted ray will not emerge from the medium, but
will be reflected back into the medium. This is called total
internal reflection.
Total internal reflection takes place when

• light shines from an optically denser medium to an
optically less dense medium.
• the angle of incidence is greater than the critical angle.
Optics
If the angle of incidence is larger than this, no
transmission occurs.
Total internal reflection takes place when light is reflected

back into the medium because the angle of incidence is
greater than the critical angle.
Optics
Given that the refractive indices of air and water are 1 and
1.33, respectively, find the critical angle.
SOLUTION.
We know that the critical angle is given by:
The critical angle for light travelling from water to air is 48.8◦.
Optics
Binoculars often
use total internal
reflection; this gives
true 100% reflection,
which even the best
mirror cannot do.
Optics
One of the most common applications of total
internal reflection is in fibre optics.
An optical fibre is a thin, transparent fibre, usually

made of glass or plastic, for transmitting light.
Optical fibres are usually thinner than a human hair!
Optical fibers depend on total internal reflection;

they are therefore able to transmit light signals with
very small losses.
Optics
Fibre Optics in Telecommunications.
Optical fibres are most common in telecommunications,

because information can be transported over long
distances, with minimal loss of data.
The minimised loss of data gives optical fibres an

advantage over conventional cables.
Optics
Fibre Optics in Medicine.
Optic fibres are used in medicine in endoscopes.
Endoscopy means to look inside and refers to looking inside the human body for
diagnosing medical conditions.
The main part of an endoscope is the optical fibre. Light is shone down the optical fibre
and a medical doctor can use the endoscope to look inside a patient.
Endoscopes are used to examine the inside of a patient’s stomach, by inserting the
endoscope down the patient’s throat.
Endoscopes allow minimally invasive surgery. This means that a person can be
diagnosed and treated through a small incision.
This has advantages over open surgery because endoscopy is quicker and cheaper
and the patient recovers more quickly.
The alternative is open surgery which is expensive, requires more time and is more
traumatic for the patient.

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Reflection and Refraction of

Light has a number of physical properties,

In this module, we will focus on the aspects of

Electromagnetic (EM) energy is radiant energy

This energy or radiation is generated by anybody

EM radiation can be viewed as either a wave (wave

The frequency of an electromagnetic wave

The totality of array of all electromagnetic

Humans experience electromagnetic waves

Our eyes are sensitive to visible light while

Calculating the wavelength of beam of

However, this is a good way to draw light. It is also a good way

These narrow, imaginary lines of light, is called light rays.

It can be drawn the same way: as straight lines between

It can be used to model mirrors, lenses, telescopes,

The object must be a source of light (for example a light bulb)

Apparatus: a candle, matches and three sheets of paper.

This shows that light travels in a straight

This also proves that light does not bend

On a sunny day, stand outside and look at something in the

From what we have learnt, we can see the tree, flower or

Now take a sheet of paper and hold it about 20 cm in front of your

Generally, light slows somewhat when traveling through a medium,

The absolute index of refraction n of a medium is the ratio:

The index of refraction is a dimensionless number greater than

The relationship between index of refraction and wavelength

If we replace the v2 / v1 term in the equation with n1 / n2, we expressed the

For a ray that lies along the normal

Imagine a coin on the bottom of a shallow pool of water.

This shallower location is known as the apparent depth.

The refractive index of a medium can also be expressed as

using Snell’s Law, substitute values

using Snell’s Law, substitute values

using Snell’s Law, substitute values

using Snell’s Law, substitute values

Using Snell’s law of refraction and

Solution Using Snell’s law of refraction and taking n1 = 1.00 for

From indices of refraction table, the material could be fused quartz.

Solution We rearrange Snell’s law of refraction to obtain

n1 = 1.00 for air and n2 = 1.52 for crown glass. Therefore,

Solution We expect to find a value less than 3.00 x 108 m/s

the wavelength of this light in the plastic can be obtained using:

Light traveling in air strikes a flat piece of

The outgoing ray is parallel to the

A coin is placed at the bottom of a 40 cm deep pond. The refractive index

A coin is placed at the bottom of a 40 cm deep pond. The refractive index

A R1 coin appears to be 7 cm deep in a colourless liquid. The depth of

A coin is placed at the bottom of a 40 cm deep pond. The refractive index

Using the indices of refraction table above, The liquid is an

When a light ray traveling in one medium encounters a boundary with

The figure below shows rays of a beam of light incident on a smooth,

The light ray moving away from the surface is

The most important characteristic of these rays

The normal is an imaginary line perpendicular

The angle of incidence, θi is measured between

The angle of reflection, θr is measured between

When a ray of light is reflected, the reflected ray

In this class, we will focus only on specular reflection and

The reflecting properties of all three types of mirrors will be

If you place a candle in front of a

The actual, physical candle is called

The object is the source of the

The image is the picture that is