6.

2 (a) NON-FERROUS METALS

AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
COMMON NON-FERROUS METALS
USED IN AIRCRAFT
6.2(a) 1
 Characteristics

 Properties

 Identification -

1
 ALUMINIUM
 Aluminium is a very important metal in
aircraft engineering
 Most modern aircraft are constructed from
aluminium alloys of one form or another
 Aluminium is obtained from an ore called:

Bauxite

2
 Aluminium Production
 Bauxite is crushed and treated with
Caustic Soda solution to produce
Aluminium Oxide combined with water

 Then heated to evaporate the water

 Pure aluminium oxide, which remains, can

be converted into aluminium
3
Properties of Aluminium
 Light – Relative Density 2.7

 Weak – tensile strength about 13,000 psi

 Good corrosion resistance – this is due to

the very thin oxide film which forms on the
surface of the metal when it is exposed to
the atmosphere

4
Properties of Aluminium

 Good conductor of heat and electricity

 Non-magnetic

 Low melting point (1250oF/660.3oC)

5
Uses of Aluminium
 Available in various forms of hardness from fully
annealed to fully work hardened

 In aircraft construction, aluminium is not often

used in the pure state because of its low strength

 Large number of alloys with aluminium as their

base are available and these are used to make
most of the structural parts and skinning of
modern aircraft

6
Aluminium Alloys
 The most important alloying elements used are:

Copper
Manganese
Magnesium
Silicon
Zinc

 The alloys can be classified as casting alloys, or

wrought alloys, although all are cast originally
7
 HEAT TREATMENT OF
NON-FERROUS METALS

 6.2(a) 2 – Heat Treatment of Aluminium

and Aluminium Alloys

8
Aluminium Alloys
Aluminium Alloys can be further classified:

 Alloys which are not heat treated

Available as cast or wrought alloys

 Alloys, which are heat treated

The term heat treatment refers to a strengthening
heat treatment and so does not include
annealing, which is a softening heat treatment
9
Aluminium Alloys

 Wrought alloys are produced in the form

of sheet, tubing, forgings and wire

 Cast alloys are suitable for making parts

both by sand casting and die casting -

10
 Non-Heat Treatable Wrought
Aluminium Alloys
 These aluminium alloys cannot be
strengthened by heat treatment

 The necessary strength and stiffness can

be obtained only by controlling the amount
of Cold Working in the final shaping
process

 This produces a range of alloys with

different mechanical properties
11
 Heat Treatable Aluminium
Alloys
These aluminium alloys are strengthened by heat
treatment
 Many heat treatable aluminium alloys are used to
build aircraft
 A typical aluminium alloy BS L163 (2014) contains
approximately:
4% copper
1% manganese
0.8% magnesium
0.9% silicon
 The remainder being aluminium

12
 PROTECTION FROM
CORROSION

 Alloying reduces the corrosion

resistance of aluminium

 Anelectrolytic process known as

Anodising helps protect it from
corrosion -
13
 ALCLAD

 Alclad is often used for aircraft work and

consists of a sandwich of Aluminium Alloy
between two very thin layers of Aluminium,
the aluminium alloy being 95% of the total
thickness

 Strength of aluminium alloy and the

corrosion resistance of aluminium
14
6.2 (a) NON-FERROUS METALS
AIRCRAFT MATERIALS
COMMON NON-FERROUS METALS
USED IN AIRCRAFT
6.2(a) 1
 Identification -

15
 ALUMINIUM ALLOY IDENTIFICATION

 Aluminium and its alloys are internationally classified

into 8 groups identified by a 4-figure series number

 The first digit indicates the principal alloying

element

 For example any alloy in the 2000 series such as

2117 or 2024 has Copper as its main alloying
element

 7075 has Zinc as its main alloy

16
ALUMINIUM ALLOY IDENTIFICATION

Aluminium Alloys 99.0% minimum 1000

grouped by main
Copper 2000
alloying elements
Manganese 3000
Silicon 4000
Magnesium 5000
Magnesium & Silicon 6000
Zinc 7000
Lithium & others 8000

17
 ALUMINIUM ALLOY IDENTIFICATION

 Second digit identifies the alloy modification state

 - 0 indicates that the alloy is original

 - 1 indicates that the alloy has been modified once

 The third and fourth digits identify the specific

aluminium alloy.

 In the case of 2024, the alloy consists of 4.5% copper,

1.5% magnesium, 0.1% chromium and the remainder
aluminium.
18
ALUMINIUM ALLOY IDENTIFICATION

2 basic divisions of aluminium alloys:

 NON-HEAT TREATABLE – can be softened

but not hardened by heat treatment.
These are strengthened by controlled working, e.g.
cold rolling

 HEAT TREATABLE – can be softened and

hardened by heat treatment -
19
 ALUMINIUM ALLOY IDENTIFICATION

 If non-heat treatable alloys are heated to their

annealing temperature and allowed to cool slowly
they will be softened to their annealed or original
(O) condition

 The 2000, 4000, 6000, 7000 and 8000 series alloys

are strengthened by solution treatment followed by
age hardening

 The 1000, 3000 and 5000 series alloys are cold

worked to increase their strength
20
 ALUMINIUM ALLOY IDENTIFICATION

IDENTIFYING STRAIN HARDENING PROCESSES

(Cold Process)
Non-heat treatable aluminium alloys can be
hardened by strain hardening
Usually done by rolling the sheets of metal

The cold worked temper of wrought alloys is

indicated by the letter – H followed by a number

Tempers in the – H series are not applicable to castings -

21
 ALUMINIUM ALLOY IDENTIFICATION

The first number digit following – H indicates the

form of the Strain Hardening (H1, H2, H3, H4)

A second number digit 2, 4, 6 or 8 indicates the final

degree of hardness
The fully hard condition is 8

4 indicates material with a strength midway between

fully annealed –0 and full hard i.e. half hard
22
ALUMINIUM ALLOY IDENTIFICATION
EXAMPLE:

5052 – H24
Magnesium
Original
Half Hardened
Specific Alloy

Strain Hardened
Partially Annealed
23
 ALUMINIUM ALLOY IDENTIFICATION

IDENTIFYING HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES

(Heated Process)
The heat treatable alloys can be hardened and
strengthened by solution heat treatment or by
precipitation heat treatment (artificial ageing).
The heat-treated temper of aluminium alloys is
indicated by the letter –T followed by one or more
numbers.
Number following T shows the type of heat treatment

Any variations are indicated by a second number

24
ALUMINIUM ALLOY IDENTIFICATION
 EXAMPLES
 -T3 Solution heat treated and strain hardened (cold
rolled)
 -T36 Solution heat treated and cold rolled to reduce
the thickness of the sheet by 6 per cent
 -T4 Solution heat treated then naturally aged
 -T42 Solution heat treated by the user regardless of
the previous temper
 2024 – T4

Heat treated alloy

Solution treated
& naturally aged 25
The table below shows the changes in strength produced by

heat treatment of aluminium alloy 2024

TEMPER CONDITION ULTIMATE TENSILE
HEAT
TREATMENT STRENGTH lb/sq in

-0 Annealed 32,000

- T4 Solution heat treated and naturally aged 63,000

- T3 Solution heat treated and strain hardened 64,000

- T36 Solution heat treated and strain hardened 69,000

by rolling until its thickness has been
reduced by 6%
- T86 Solution heat treated and strain hardened 72,000
by rolling until its thickness has been
reduced by 6% and then artificially aged
(precipitation heat treated)

26
 MISCELLANEOUS
NON-FERROUS METALS
 MAGNESIUM ALLOY
 TITANIUM
 INCONEL
 NIMONIC ALLOY
 COPPER
 BRASS
 TUNGUM
 LEAD
27
 MAGNESIUM
 Magnesium is the lightest engineering metal in
general use with a relative density of 1.7

 Pure magnesium is a weak metal - alloying

with aluminium, zinc, manganese and
zirconium will increase its strength

 Magnesium alloy corrodes easily -

Chromating gives it protection from corrosion
28
 MAGNESIUM
 Magnesium will ignite and burn if overheated

 Magnesium is difficult to obtain from its ore,

Dolomite

 Electrolysis is used in a process similar to that

to obtain aluminium

 Some magnesium alloys are known under the

name Electron and can be cast or wrought
alloys 29
 MAGNESIUM
 Can be precipitation hardened in a similar
way to that used for aluminium alloys

 Used to make aircraft landing wheels,

piston engine crankcases, turbine engine
compressor casings, valve bodies etc

 American magnesium alloys are identified

by a series of letters and numbers -
30
 MAGNESIUM

 The first letter or letters identify the main

alloying elements

 The middle digits identify the percentage of

each of the identified elements

 The last letter and number indicate the heat

treatment of the alloy
31
 MAGNESIUM
 EXAMPLE:
AZ31A - T4
 AZ - The main alloying elements are
aluminium and zinc.

 31- This is 3% aluminium and 1% zinc

 A - Indicates that the alloy is original

 T4 - The alloy has been solution heat treated

32
 TITANIUM
 Greyish white metal with a high Strength to
Weight Ratio

 Relative Density of 4.5

 Resistant to corrosion
 Strength can be increased by alloying with
aluminium, manganese, vanadium and
molybdenum
33
 TITANIUM
 Strength and corrosion resistance is
maintained at high temperatures continuously
at temperatures up to 600oC resisting creep
and oxidation

 Titanium is as strong as steel yet 45% lighter

Used in aircraft in place of steels to reduce weight

*** Top tip

Good Strength and Corrosion Resistance at
High Temperatures
34
 TITANIUM

 Titanium forms a natural oxide film protecting

it from corrosion
Can be anodised to thicken this oxide film
This reduces the absorption of hydrogen reducing
the risk of Hydrogen Embrittlement -

35
 TITANIUM
 Anodising provides a self-lubricating surface

 Special care is required when machining

titanium due to its extreme work hardening
properties
e.g, centre drilling should be used prior to drilling,
as centre punching would harden the metal

36
 TITANIUM

 Fine swarf or powder is a possible fire risk

 A fire can be extinguished with dry powder

Water must not be used

37
 TITANIUM

 Cadmium must not be allowed to come in

contact with titanium as it will cause the
metal to be Embrittled

 Used to make bolts and other fasteners, flap

tracks, compressor blades for gas turbine
engines, firewalls, hot air pipes, hydraulic
pipes and parts which operate at high
temperatures
38
 INCONEL
 A well known high temperature alloy:
80% Nickel
14% Chromium
6% Iron

 Quite tough at high temperatures

 Does not oxidise very easily because of

the protective film of Chromium Oxide,
which forms on the surface
39
 NIMONIC ALLOY
 Properties of Inconel were improved in the
Nimonic series of alloys

 Basically Nickel-Chromium alloys, stiffened

and strengthened by adding small amount of
titanium, aluminium, cobalt and
molybdenum


 Used in gas turbine engines where high

strength at high temperatures and resistance
to oxidation and creep are required 40
 MONEL METAL
 Containing
68% Nickel
29% Copper
1.25% Iron
1.25% Manganese

Good resistance to corrosion.

Malleable and used to make rivets -
41
 COPPER

 Good conductor of heat and electricity

 Reddish brown in colour
 Very malleable and ductile
 Can be shaped by rolling, drawing, forging
and pressing.
 Used to make electrical cables and parts
for electrical equipment

42
 BRASS
 Brasses are copper based alloys containing up to
45% Zinc and sometimes small amounts of other
metals such as tin, lead, aluminium, manganese
and iron

 These additions increase the tensile strength and

resistance to corrosion

 Used in the manufacture of instrument mechanisms,

bellows assemblies and pitot heads

43
 BRONZE
 Bronzes are also copper based alloys containing up
to 18% Tin sometimes with smaller amounts of
phosphorus, zinc or lead
 Low tin bronzes are used for springs and instrument
parts as they have good elastic properties and are
corrosion resistant
 High tin bronzes are used in bearings and bushes,
which are subjected to heavy loads
 Sintered bronzes are often used to make small self-
lubricating bearings

44
 TUNGUM

 An alloy containing 81% to 86% Copper and

small amounts of nickel, silicon, aluminium
and zinc

 Highly resistant to fatigue and corrosion,

and strong and ductile

 Used to make hydraulic and other pipelines

45
 LEAD
 Bright and lustrous when freshly cut which soon
oxidises to a dull grey
 Very heavy, relative density 11.3
 Soft and malleable, resistant to corrosion and has
a low melting point of 327oC
 Major constituent of soft solder
 Used to make flying control surface mass balance
weights
 Gives protection from X-rays
 Used to make containers for radioactive isotopes,
during certain NDT procedures -
46
.... and the future - now!
 Aluminium & Lithium (Al-Li)
Lithium, the worlds lightest metal, decreases the weight of
aluminum while improving its strength, toughness, corrosion
resistance and forming characteristics of the alloy

Aluminium-lithium alloys are a separate class of alloys

characterised by valuable combination of properties:
 Lower density
18% Weight savings
 Higher Young's modulus,
 Relatively high mechanical properties
 Corrosion resistance.
47
The new Airbus A350 uses a great deal of Al-Li (estimates as high as 20% have
been reported) for the wings and fuselage.
Modern versions of the Al-Li alloy include the 2099, 2195 and the 2199.
48
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49